Extreme rainfall events: evaluation with different instruments and measurement reliability

With regard to extreme events, it is well documented that an intensity of about 1 mm/min already represents an extreme intensity. Under alpine conditions, a precipitation event with an intensity of 3 mm/min has occurred. Therefore, the rain gauges in this region have to be able to measure in this and even in higher intensity ranges. This study deals with basic automated tipping-bucket rain (TBR) gauge and Bulk precipitation samplers, which are able to hold more than 95 % of the cumulative rainfall, that are verified within the space of the week without losses during the extreme events and with minimal evaporation loss. Bulk samplers collected more rainfall than TBR gauges in 110 of 221 extreme events analysed over the past 10 years. In 17 extreme events, an underestimation greater than 10 % was evaluated. The objective was to single out the counting errors associated with TBR gauge, during extreme events, so as to help the understanding of the measured differences between instruments in the field. We want to determine whether the automated precipitation gauge can provide a reliable and precise measurement of precipitation with particular interest regarding heavy and extreme events.     

Rainfall duration and debris-flow initiated studies for real-time monitoring

A rainfall-induced debris flow warning is implemented employing real-time rain gauge data. The pre-warning for the time of landslide triggering derives the threshold or critical rainfall from historical events involving regional rainfall patterns and geological conditions. In cases of debris flow, the time taken cumulative runoff, to yield abundant water for debris triggering, is an important index that needs monitoring. In gathered historical cases, rainfall time history data from the nearest rain gauge stations to debris-flow sites connected to debris flow are used to define relationships between the rainfall intensity and duration. The effects by which the regional rainfall patterns (antecedent rainfall, duration, intensity, cumulative rainfall) and geological settings combine together to trigger a debris-flow are analyzed for real-time monitoring. The analyses focused on 61 historical hazard events with the timing of debris flow initiation and rainfall duration to burst debris-flow characteristics recorded. A combination of averaged rainfall intensity and duration is a more practical index for debris-flow monitoring than critical or threshold rainfall intensity. Because, the outburst timing of debris flows correlates closely to the peak hourly rainfall and the forecasting of peak hourly rainfall reached in a meteorological event could be a valuable index for real-time debris-flow warning.     

黄土地区小流域降雨空间变化特征分析

利用黄土地区雨量站网较密,控制条件较好的小流域资料,统计分析了5min、15min、30min、60min时段降雨及次降雨空间变化的点面关系、频率特征及结构特征,研究了时段降雨分布同次降雨分布的内在联系,为进一步在产流模拟计算中的应用提供了基础。     

基于多类型雨量计的降雨特性分析

为提高对降雨特性的认识,选择常用的6种测雨设备（翻斗式SL3-1、JDZ05、RG-3,称重式Pluvio2,雨滴谱仪Parsivel2和非计数式JQH-1）,成对布设在南京水利科学研究院滁州水文实验基地的同一个实验场地,同步观测了2019年4月1日至8月31日为期5个月的降雨过程。比测分析得到：在中大雨条件下（日雨量≥ 10 mm）,SL3-1和JDZ05测的降雨总量能够满足4%误差控制要求,RG-3、Pluvio2和Parsivel2测的降雨量比JQH-1测值小4%;在小雨条件下（日雨量<10 mm）,翻斗式和称重式雨量计的测量值小于JQH-1测值的4%;SL3-1、RG-3、Pluvio2、Parsivel2测得雨强≤ 0.1 mm/min的频率大于75%,雨强≤ 0.2 mm/min条件下的雨量累积比重大于50%;Pluvio2和Parsivel2监测的降雨开始时间比SL3-1分别早0.5 h和2 h以上,而结束时间分别晚0.5 h和2 h以上。比测结果有助于研究人员选择合适的测量设备获取所关注的降雨特性。     

基于多类型雨量计的降雨特性分析

为提高对降雨特性的认识,选择常用的6种测雨设备（翻斗式SL3-1、JDZ05、RG-3,称重式Pluvio2,雨滴谱仪Parsivel2和非计数式JQH-1）,成对布设在南京水利科学研究院滁州水文实验基地的同一个实验场地,同步观测了2019年4月1日至8月31日为期5个月的降雨过程。比测分析得到:在中大雨条件下（日雨量≥ 10 mm）,SL3-1和JDZ05测的降雨总量能够满足4%误差控制要求,RG-3、Pluvio2和Parsivel2测的降雨量比JQH-1测值小4%;在小雨条件下（日雨量 < 10 mm）,翻斗式和称重式雨量计的测量值小于JQH-1测值的4%;SL3-1、RG-3、Pluvio2、Parsivel2测得雨强≤ 0.1 mm/min的频率大于75%,雨强≤ 0.2 mm/min条件下的雨量累积比重大于50%;Pluvio2和Parsivel2监测的降雨开始时间比SL3-1分别早0.5 h和2 h以上,而结束时间分别晚0.5 h和2 h以上。比测结果有助于研究人员选择合适的测量设备获取所关注的降雨特性。     

三种JDZ型翻斗式雨量计性能比对实验研究

在我国,JDZ系列翻斗式雨量计已广泛用于降雨量的观测。为了掌握JDZ系列雨量计测量降雨的精度和可靠性,以三种JDZ型翻斗式雨量计(JDZ02、JDZ05和JDZ10)为研究对象,基于一套智能化的雨量计率定系统开展室内性能比对实验。结果表明:(1)以小雨强0.4mm·min^-1作为零误差参考雨强,JDZ02在小于2mm·min^-1时的误差在-4%以内,JDZ05在小于4mm·min^-1时的误差在-4%以内,JDZ10在小于6mm·min^-1时的误差在-4%以内。(2)在雨强-总误差的拟合关系中,二次多项式拟合的效果最好,线性拟合的效果次之,幂函数拟合的效果最差,故建议采用雨强-误差的二次多项式关系订正JDZ系列雨量计监测的降雨数据。(3)左右翻斗水量过程线可以精细刻画翻斗内水量动态变化,判断出翻斗式雨量计的翻斗左右平衡性能,并可计算出翻斗式雨量计动态率定过程中的误差变化。     

多源降雨信息质量评估技术

多源降雨信息质量评估遇到的基本问题是各类降雨信息的空间特征不同,信息采集传输的时间频次不同和降雨真值不明。本文在地面站雨量为点降雨真值、经地面雨量站校正后的雷达观测产品反映了降雨真值的空间分布等假定基础上,提出了单点雨量、区域点雨量、面雨量、降雨空间分布和洪水预报系统产品等5个层次的多源降雨信息质量评估体系和技术。     

黔南州不同雨量观测精度与降水特征值的对比分析

将水文站的虹吸式雨量计全部替换为无人值守的翻斗式遥测雨量计,极大地缩短了降水信息传播时间,但由于翻斗式遥测雨量计分辨率(0.5mm)与虹吸式雨量计分辨率(0.1mm)不同,其观测资料的一致性将受到影响。通过对贵州省黔南州三个水文站各种时段不同观测精度降水特征值的对比,定量分析了其误差范围,可为水文资料的一致性分析提供参考。     

雨量站网布设对水文模型不确定性影响的比较

雨量站网布设会影响径流模拟精度,研究不同雨量站密度和空间分布的径流响应规律对提高径流模拟精度和减小不确定性具有重要意义。应用新安江模型和HBV（Hydrologiska Fyrans Vattenbalans）模型,以湘江流域为研究对象,采用贝叶斯方法比较分析在不同雨量站密度及空间分布下径流模拟的不确定性。结果表明:增加雨量站密度可以降低面雨量的估计误差,使模型在不同的雨量站空间分布下具有较高的模拟精度;通过优化雨量站空间分布,可以减小雨量站网布设导致的模型不确定性,从而提高径流模拟精度;在相同的降雨输入和参数采样方法下,新安江模型和HBV模型对降雨输入导致的不确定性响应规律具有相似性,但是本研究结果显示在湘江流域新安江模型的模拟精度更高,而HBV模型的不确定性更大。     

Daily rainfall statistics of TRMM and CMORPH: A case for trans-boundary Gandak River basin

Satellite precipitation products offer an opportunity to evaluate extreme events (flood and drought) for areas where rainfall data are not available or rain gauge stations are sparse. In this study, daily precipitation amount and frequency of TRMM 3B42V.7 and CMORPH products have been validated against daily rain gauge precipitation for the monsoon months (June–September or JJAS) from 2005–2010 in the trans-boundary Gandak River basin. The analysis shows that the both TRMM and CMORPH can detect rain and no-rain events, but they fail to capture the intensity of rainfall.     

降雨入渗下非饱和坡残积土湿润锋运移试验研究

我国东南沿海地区丘陵山地发育，降雨入渗到土体中的水分是导致滑坡灾害频发的关键因素。以福建省泉州市德化县地质灾害点为主要研究对象，考察典型地质灾害点具有代表性的坡积土与花岗岩残积土的渗透特性。利用自行研制的土体入渗装置，分别在降雨强度为15、30、60 mm/h条件下，考虑降雨历时一致（180 min）与过程降雨量一致（90 mm）两种工况开展一维土柱入渗试验，得到相应的各个土柱含水率、湿润锋、入渗率随时间变化的响应规律。试验结果表明：（1）土体渗透系数越大、雨强越大，土体湿润蔓延距离越深、速度越快。（2）降雨入渗过程中，土体含水率由浅及深逐次对降雨进行响应。不同雨强对含水率的影响主要体现在第一次响应时间以及饱和速度上，雨强越大，响应时间越快，饱和速度也越快。（3）提出可表征在不同雨强作用下，德化县马坪滑坡与崩土岭滑坡的湿润锋入渗公式。该研究成果对台风暴雨型滑坡的孕灾机制分析以及精细化监测预警具有重要的理论及实际意义。     

Analysis of the Sanchung inundation during Typhoon Aere, 2004

Typhoon Aere swept over Taiwan with heavy rain, which induced huge discharge in the Danshuei River in August 2004. The flood in the Danshuei River intruded Sanchung through a culvert that was under construction. The deluge inundated thousands of premises and resulted in severe damage. This study reconstructs the event scenario using hydrologic and hydraulic methods to analyse the causes of the disaster. We integrated the radar rainfall estimations and rain gauge observations to recreate the temporal and spatial varied precipitation inputs; estimated the influent volume from the culvert using hydrologic equations; and simulated the flood dynamic within the study area during the event with a coupled overland and sewer flow model. The evidence showed that both the rainfall and the culvert flow contributed similar flood volume to the study area, but culvert discharge concentrated at single location within short time period such that the local drainage system could not cope with and notable damage was incurred.     

Hydrometeorological thresholds for landslide initiation and forest operation shutdowns on the north coast of British Columbia

Debris flows and debris avalanches are the most widespread and hazardous types of landslides on the British Columbia north coast. Triggered by heavy rain, they pose risks to forestry workers in sparsely developed regions. The scarcity of long-term quality rain gauges and the lack of weather radar information create significant challenge in predicting the timing of landslides, which could be used to warn and, when necessary, evacuate forestry personnel. Traditional methods to relate rainfall antecedents and rainfall intensity to known landslide dates have proven to be unsatisfactory in this study due to extreme spatial variability of rainfall, enhanced by the orographic effect and the scarcity of rain gauges in a very large area. This has led to an integration of meteorological variables in a landslide advisory system that classifies three types of approaching storms by the 850-mbar wind speed and direction, the occurrence of subtropical moisture flow, and the existence of a warm layer characterized by high thickness values of the 500- to 1,000-mbar pressure levels. The storm classification was combined with a 4-week antecedent rainfall and the 24-h rainfall measured near or in the watershed where logging operations are taking place. This system, once implemented, is thought to reduce loss of life, injury, and economic losses associated with forestry works in the study area.     

基于WEB的浙江省降雨型滑坡预警预报系统

滑坡发生的最主要诱发因素是降雨.基于浙江省淳安、磐安、庆元和永嘉4个县的历史滑坡资料, 在研究降雨量、降雨强度和降雨过程与滑坡灾害的空间分布、时间上的对应关系, 建立起滑坡灾害时空分布与降雨过程的统计关系, 确定区域性滑坡的临界降雨量和降雨强度阀值的基础上, 开发出了降雨型滑坡预警预报系统, 其中采用临界降雨量模型和有效降雨量模型来进行预警预报.系统留给浙江省气象台一个传送数据的接口, 气象台将每天按时上传降雨数据, 数据保存在后台数据库MicrosoftSQLServer中.建成的系统能够自动获取数据库中的数据生成时间与降雨量实时曲线, 当降雨量达到降雨强度阀值时, 触发MAPGIS图件, 在Internet上发布区域预警预报信息, 并提供预警措施.      

汶川强震区泥石流起动模型试验分析

强震使大量松散堆积物堆积于高山峡谷内,由于持续降雨的作用,导致泥石流在汶川灾区频繁发生。降雨强度和物源与泥石流的起动有着密切联系,分析雨强和物源与泥石流起动的相关关系,可得不同雨强下,不同物源区泥石流起动的特征。通过对典型泥石流沟（映秀镇烧火坪侧沟,牛莲花心沟）进行野外样品采集,将两条泥石流沟进行对比室内试验。控制起动坡度,降雨强度与颗粒级配得出不同坡度下泥石流起动的表面流形成流量,起动流量。同时,与非强震区（西昌市琅环乡）的泥石流简单对比,得到强震区泥石流起动的临界条件及雨强,为泥石流的预测和治理提供相应的理论依据。通过大量的试验结果,泥石流起动首先会形成表面流,然后形成冲沟,随着物源区雨强的增加,最终形成大面积松散堆积物失稳,整体起动。泥石流起动与汇水区面积成一定关系。     

不同降雨条件下城市下垫面表面薄层水流的典型参数试验研究

以北京昌平未来科技城试验基地的降雨强度为降雨条件，通过室内降雨试验平台，研究了4种典型不透水下垫面（沥青、砼面、SBS改性沥青和砼方砖）和4种典型透水下垫面（草坪砖A、草坪砖B、风积砂砖A和风积砂砖B）分别在8种恒定雨强条件下形成薄层产流后的糙率系数、沿程阻力系数和径流系数的变化过程。结果显示：平面尺寸、表面光滑度、材质对不透水下垫面的糙率和沿程阻力系数影响较为明显；而结构、材质对透水下垫面的糙率和沿程阻力系数影响较为明显；两类下垫面的糙率值和沿程阻力系数均随雨强增加呈现减小的变化趋势，但变化的幅度较小，之后逐渐趋于稳定；两类下垫面的径流系数在不同雨强下保持相对稳定。     

不同降雨条件下城市下垫面表面薄层水流的典型参数试验研究

以北京昌平未来科技城试验基地的降雨强度为降雨条件，通过室内降雨试验平台，研究了4种典型不透水下垫面（沥青、砼面、SBS改性沥青和砼方砖）和4种典型透水下垫面（草坪砖A、草坪砖B、风积砂砖A和风积砂砖B）分别在8种恒定雨强条件下形成薄层产流后的糙率系数、沿程阻力系数和径流系数的变化过程。结果显示:平面尺寸、表面光滑度、材质对不透水下垫面的糙率和沿程阻力系数影响较为明显；而结构、材质对透水下垫面的糙率和沿程阻力系数影响较为明显；两类下垫面的糙率值和沿程阻力系数均随雨强增加呈现减小的变化趋势，但变化的幅度较小，之后逐渐趋于稳定；两类下垫面的径流系数在不同雨强下保持相对稳定。     

Inconsistency in rainfall characteristics estimated from records of different rain gauges

The goal of this work is to assess the effect of utilizing different types of tipping bucket rain gauges in investigating rainfall characteristics. A dual tipping bucket (TB) rain gauge station is installed in the upper catchment of Numan basin in Saudi Arabia. The main difference between the two gauges is that the Hydrological Services (HS) gauge is equipped with a siphon tube which reduces undercatchment particularly during heavy rainfall. Records of both gauges for the period 2006 to 2013 are collected, analyzed, and compared, focusing on the characteristics of rainfall events as well as rainfall temporal variability. The HS gauge recorded higher values of total rainfall depth compared to the Texas Electronics (TEMM) gauge. For the individual storms as well as the 5-min rainfall, HS gauge also reported higher mean rainfall depths. Regarding temporal characteristics of reported rainfall, no significant variations are observed between the values of storm duration of the two gauges. The TEMM gauge has the advantage of recoding more storms with depth less than 1 mm. The current study suggests the use of a corrective factor for rainfall record of the TEMM gauge.     

Spatially distributed rainfall information and its potential for regional landslide early warning systems

Crucial to most landslide early warning system (EWS) is the precise prediction of rainfall in space and time. Researchers are aware of the importance of the spatial variability of rainfall in landslide studies. Commonly, however, it is neglected by implementing simplified approaches (e.g. representative rain gauges for an entire area). With spatially differentiated rainfall information, real-time comparison with rainfall thresholds or the implementation in process-based approaches might form the basis for improved landslide warnings. This study suggests an automated workflow from the hourly, web-based collection of rain gauge data to the generation of spatially differentiated rainfall predictions based on deterministic and geostatistical methods. With kriging usually being a labour-intensive, manual task, a simplified variogram modelling routine was applied for the automated processing of up-to-date point information data. Validation showed quite satisfactory results, yet it also revealed the drawbacks that are associated with univariate geostatistical interpolation techniques which solely rely on rain gauges (e.g. smoothing of data, difficulties in resolving small-scale, highly intermittent rainfall). In the perspective, the potential use of citizen scientific data is highlighted for the improvement of studies on landslide EWS.     

豫西某金矿矿渣转化为泥石流物源的危险性评价

矿渣在沟谷的堆积形态、压占比例影响其在特定降雨概率下的稳定性。文中以豫西某金矿2条主沟16个渣堆为研究对象,提出在不同降雨概率雨力条件下单个渣堆稳定性计算方法。即近10年来最大观测雨强、 25年一遇(P=4%)雨强、50年一遇雨强(P=2%)、100年一遇雨强(P=1%)条件下的启动流速(U_c)以及泄洪流速(U_s),令稳定系数F_s=U_c/U_s,计算出渣堆的稳定系数,研究成果对于不同特定雨力工况下渣堆的危险性评价及分类防治有一定意义。