FINE SCALE VARIABILITY IN SOIL FROST DYNAMICS SURROUNDING CUSHIONS OF THE DOMINANT VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES (AZORELLA SELAGO) ON SUB‐ANTARCTIC MARION ISLAND

Through changing soil thermal regimes, soil moisture and affecting weathering and erosion processes plants can have an important effect on the physical properties and structure of soils. Such physical soil changes can in turn lead to biological facilitation, such as vegetation‐banked terrace formation or differential seedling establishment. We studied the fine scale variability in soil temperature and moisture parameters, specifically focusing on frost cycle characteristics around cushions of the dominant, vascular plant species, Azorella selago, on sub‐Antarctic Marion Island. The frost season was characterised by numerous low intensity and very shallow frost cycles. Soils on eastern cushion sides were found to have lower mean and maximum temperatures in winterthan soils on western cushion sides. In addition, lower variability in temperature was found on eastern cushion sides in winterthan on western cushion sides, probably as a result of higher wind speeds on western cushion sides and/or eastern, lee‐side snow accumulation. Despite the mild frost climate, extensive frost heave occurred in the study area, indicating that needle ice forms at temperatures above ?2°C. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of frost pull as a heave mechanism under shallow frost conditions. The results highlight the importance of Azorella cushions in modifying site microclimates and of understanding the consequences of these modifications, such as potentially providing microhabitats. Such potential microhabitats are particularly important in light of current climate change trends on the island, as continued warming and drying will undoubtedly increase the need for thermal and moisture refugia.     

夏季不同天气条件下沙漠辐射和能量平衡的对比分析

利用2009 年7 月24 日-9 月12 日“巴丹吉林沙漠陆-气相互作用观测试验”资料,对比分析了典型晴天和阴天下巴丹吉林沙漠地表辐射、能量平衡和土壤温度的日变化规律.结果表明：①巴丹吉林沙漠典型晴天条件下总辐射、地表反射辐射、地表长波辐射、有效辐射、净辐射的峰值和日积分值都比典型阴天条件下大,大气长波辐射比阴天条件下小.两种天气条件下净辐射日积分值占太阳总辐射的1/3.②沙漠地区典型晴天地表反射率呈U型,白天均值为0.32;阴天变化较平缓,均值为0.29.③两种天气条件下地表热量平衡都以感热输送为主,波文比分别为4.55 和1.16.晴天不平衡能量达到净辐射的20%,阴天为30%.④晴天条件下有效能量夜间为负值,白天为正值,阴天全天为正值;湍流能量全天均为正值.能量闭合度(EBR)晴天平均为0.68,阴天为0.76.⑤土壤温度5~10 cm日较差逐渐减小,20、40 cm日变化不明显;5 cm土壤热通量日变化较大,20 cm土壤热通量振幅较小.     

Satellite Passive Sensing of the Marine Atmosphere Associated With Cold‐Air Mesoscale Cyclones

Contemporary research into extratropical cloud systems optimizes the increase in resolution of visible (VIS) and thermal infra‐red (IR) sensors, and the ability to retrieve wind and atmospheric moisture variables at mesoscales using microwave radiometry. These passively‐acquired remote sensing data are used to develop synoptic climatological (conceptual and simple statistical) ‘models’ of mesoscale cyclones in cold‐air outbreaks (mesocyclones, ‘polar lows’) occurring over the otherwise data‐void southern oceans. Mesocyclones present a limitation to successful weather forecasting for New Zealand and coastal Chile, southern Australia and South Africa, during the cold season. The synoptic climatological analyses show that: 1) the patterns of mesocyclone cloud vortex origins, movement and dissipation (‘mesocyclone regimes’), exhibit spatial dependence and have associations with upper‐ocean conditions; 2) mesocyclone ‘outbreaks’ are embedded within characteristic larger‐scale anomaly fields of tropospheric pressure, height, and layer thickness (mean temperature); and 3) composite (statistical average) models of cloud system structure based on the microwave retrievals of marine weather reveal mesocyclones to be relatively dry in comparison with synoptic cyclones, yet very windy. These analyses should permit the development of methods to better predict these important cold‐season storms over southern middle latitudes, and a fuller assessment of their significance for the larger hydroclimatic system.     

RADIATION CLIMATOLOGY: SOME ILLUSTRATIVE CASE STUDIES

A wide range of natural systems are responsive to temporal changes (e.g., diurnal, seasonal) in the flow of radiant heat energy generated by the Sun. The receipt of this energy at the Earth's surface is not simply a function of time, but is also strongly influenced by cloud cover and the orientation of the receiving surface relative to the Sun. While the ultimate objective in radiation climatology is to document and interpret the average radiant energy exchanges, much can be learned from an examination of appropriate instantaneous data (i.e., case studies). This paper provides a number of appropriate examples culled from 7 years of hourly observations of solar radiation incident on horizontal and inclined surfaces, from 4.5 years of data from a 12-station mesoscale network, and from published archives.

The examples show diurnal variations in the total, direct, and reflected short-wave and incoming and outgoing long-wave radiation for clear and overcast skies in both summer and winter; for the four seasons, typical clear sky diurnal variations in the solar energy incident on horizontal and inclined surfaces; and at both the meso and macro scales, the hour-by-hour and day-by-day changes in the attenuation of solar radiation associated with the passage of a frontal synoptic weather system.     

我国西北地区4.5沙尘暴天气研究

对１９９４年４月５日发生在中国西北地区的一次强沙尘暴天气，从天气事实、天气学成因以及动力诊断等方面进行了探讨分析，揭示了形成东大风沙尘暴天气的物理机制。采用ＮＣＡＲ客观分析方案进行的动力诊断表明，（１）地面热低压与正涡度中心相互对应，涡度随高度迅速减小（ξＺ＜０），有利于中低压的发展加强，沙尘暴产生在正涡度区域内；（２）沙尘暴垂直环流特征是南疆至河西中、东部发展一庞大的垂直环流圈，环流中心在１５０～２００ｈＰａ层，它起到组织低空中尺度系统的重要作用；（３）在南北经向剖面上，蒙古高压是一个非常深厚的大型天气系统，它一直伸展到对流层上部，形成了自南向北的正环流圈，在高压南部的上升气流中激发大风和沙尘暴；（４）４·５沙尘暴后期低层大气层结稳定，不利于浮尘消散，故浮尘持续时间长     

Spatial Distribution of Meso-Scale Precipitation in Scania, Southern Sweden

The aim of this study is to analyse the spatial variability of meso‐scale precipitation in Scania and to assess the influence of synoptic scale atmospheric circulation. The modes of spatial variation are revealed by EOF analysis of monthly precipitation totals between 1963 and 1990, which were obtained from a dense rain‐gauge network in Scania, southern Sweden. The influence of local physiography on the spatial distribution of precipitation is assessed by GIS techniques using a digital elevation model of Scania. The relation to synoptic scale atmospheric circulation is analysed using regional circulation indices and weather types. It is shown that the daily precipitation distribution in the area is significantly influenced by synoptic scale pressure patterns. Nevertheless, the covariability of the monthly precipitation within Scania is high. About 80% of the precipitation variability is connected to the passage of low‐pressure centres over or close to the region, which are likely to produce precipitation over the whole area. A wind‐direction dependency found in the distribution indicates that there might be a limit between precipitation regimes within the landscape. Topography greatly influences the spatial distribution in Scania. The distribution of land and surrounding sea is also an important factor and makes the relationship between physiography and precipitation rather complex. The physiographical effects vary over a single year. The dampening effect of the sea on the atmospheric temperature influences the local stability in coastal areas and results in seasonally dependent precipitation patterns.     

2011年初广西异常低温冰冻灾害成因分析

利用NECP再分析资料和Micaps站点资料,对2011-01-03-28广西地区出现的异常低温冰冻灾害过程的环流背景场、物理量场和影响系统等特征进行了分析.结果表明:1)此次过程的异常环流特征表现为中高纬倒Ω流型,低纬南支槽异常活跃,构成典型的“北脊南槽”形势,有利于北方冷空气与南方暖湿气流在广西地区交汇;2)蒙古地面冷高压强度较往年偏强,位置偏东、偏南,有利于地面冷空气的堆积和不断分裂南下,影响广西地区;3)逆温区主要位于桂北,长时间降水普遍以小到中雨为主,容易形成过冷水滴,造成冻雨灾害;4)华南静止     

TWO ELECTRIC POTENTIAL SIGNATURES OF SERIAL DIURNAL FROST

During a 96-hour period in mid-March 1987, a series of four serial frost-thaw events occurred in a research field at the University of Michigan Matthaei Botanical Gardens. Soil temperature and electric potential were recorded at two near surface probe arrays (0, 3, 6 & 9 cm) and (0, 5, 10 & 15 cm) with a horizontal separation of approximately 1 m beneath the organic-mineral soil interface at hourly intervals. These time series revealed strong repetitive serial patterns. When the electric potential measurements were converted to a surrogate measure of electrolyte concentration, the C-index, strong coupled flow effects appeared to be present in the time series owing to the effects of surface freeze-thaw, evaporation-distillation and soil water advection.

The data set shows the low frequency effects of upward soil water advection increasing the soil temperature and modulating the electrolyte concentration. These observations also demonstrate that soil freezing processes have two distinct regimes dominated by (1) early soil water advection toward the frost front from below and (2) downward expulsion of electrolyte-rich water as ice fills the pore space. These two processes of soil water advection and expulsion augmented by local evaporation produce two distinct near surface C-index signatures of serial diurnal frost. The signature depends on the direction of the vertical electrolyte gradient near the surface. [Key words: soil, frost-thaw, soil water, soil temperature.]     

MUDBOIL AND ICE‐WEDGE DYNAMICS INVESTIGATED BY ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY,GROUND TEMPERATURES AND SURFACE MOVEMENTS IN SVALBARD

Arctic tundra surfaces are dominated by a variety of patterned ground forms. Whereas a large number of studies have described morphology, structure and processes of patterned ground, few have monitored detailed patterned ground dynamics and subsurface environments continuously. We applied electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to understand near‐surface conditions of two types of patterned ground, ice‐wedge polygons and mudboils in Svalbard, where periglacial processes associated with permafrost are intensively monitored. Automated monitoring shows surface movement characterized by annual cycles of frost heave and thaw settlement, the amounts and rates of which are influenced by the intensity of ice segregation. A time series of ERT shows (1) a distinct resistivity boundary delimiting the active‐layer depth, (2) seasonal variation in resistivity controlled by thermo‐hydrological dynamics and (3) spatial variation in resistivity reflecting desiccation in summer and intensive ice segregation in winter. These results demonstrate ERT as a useful complementary technique for monitoring active‐layer depths and near‐surface hydrological conditions at periglacial patterned ground sites, where automated soil thermal and moisture measurements are limited.     

Real‐Time Calibration of Radar Precipitation Estimates

One of the main concerns with precipitation measurements is that gage networks are almost always too sparse to provide an adequate spatial coverage of storm‐scale precipitation. Gage measurements are representative only at the measurement site and are biased underestimates of the actual precipitation, mainly as a result of the effect of wind on the gage. Consequently, storm‐scale, real‐time assessments using only gage‐measured precipitation are frequently inadequate. With the advent of the WSR‐88D (formerly NEXRAD) weather radars, precipitation estimates at higher spatial resolutions (4 km by 4 km) are now available in real time. These radars use the reflectivity of S‐band (10 cm) microwaves to provide an estimate of precipitation. Unfortunately, reflectivity is a function of the surface area of the raindrops and not their volume. As a result of this and other sources of error, radar precipitation estimates using fixed reflectivity‐to‐rainfall relationships are subject to substantial biases. To provide better high‐resolution precipitation estimates, a gage‐radar precipitation compositing procedure has been developed to enhance real‐time precipitation assessments. Radar estimates provide the spatial ‘footprint’ of the storm while gage data are used to enhance accuracy. This procedure calibrates each radar separately (since biases usually vary by radar), provides a composite mosaic of multiple radars for regions that lie under more than one radar umbrella, and determines an estimate of the uncertainty of the calibration.     

STONE‐BANKED LOBES AS A PRODUCT OF MILD FREEZE–THAW ACTION: AN EXAMPLE FROM WESTERN TASMANIA,AUSTRALIA

This paper interprets a stone‐banked lobe on the upper western face of Mt Rufus, at an altitude of 1380 m in western Tasmania, Australia. The morphology of the deposit resembles that of a solifluction lobe. Field observations show vertical and downslope movement of pebbles, cobbles and small boulders over a single winter season. The movement is largely related to frost pull (10–15 cm) and shallow freeze–thaw processes promoting the downslope (up to 50 cm yr^–1) creep of material and the accumulation of coarse clasts at the lobe riser. The climate of Mt Rufus is strongly maritime and this is reflected in the limited duration and depth of penetration of frozen ground at this site during the 2013 winter. Despite the relatively mild climatic conditions, freeze–thaw processes are clearly the dominant geomorphic force operating at the site. These findings support observations of active stone‐banked lobes on sub‐Antarctic islands where intense freezing is absent. Both there and at Mt Rufus, movement is dominated by freeze–thaw processes operating in the upper c. 20 cm of the regolith. These are typical landforms of marginal freeze–thaw settings.     

Diurnal patterns in lightning activity in northern tropical Africa

The study analyzes summertime lightning incidence data across northern tropical Africa from the TRMM satellite sensor during 1998–2011. It uses harmonic analyses to detect the spatial patterns in diurnal variations of lightning activity across the study area. The results are in conformity with previous studies examining diurnal patterns of convective weather processes in this region, with most lightning activity concentrated over land areas. The peak time of lightning activity over most of the study area was during late afternoon hours, from around 1700 to 1900 local standard time. The peak time of lightning activity was observed during early morning hours in some coastal areas, such as Cameroon, which can be a result of local-level convergence between the land and sea breeze. A general progression in the time of lightning activity from late afternoon to early evening hours was observed throughout the interior of the study area, which may be attributed to land-surface heating and associated mesoscale convective systems, and to upper-level circulation in the form of the African Easterly Jet Stream.     

长春市强冰雪冻害天气系统及物理量特征

应用1971~2000年长春气象站10月至次年3月的逐日降水量、气温资料以及相应的NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,通过对资料的统计分析,给出了确定长春市发生强冰雪冻害天气的标准;根据对36个历史个例的高低空环流形势的分析,建立了4种强冰雪冻害的天气概念模型:冷涡型、深槽型、浅槽型、锋区平直型;进一步分析了长春市冰雪冻害天气的物理量场、要素场的特征。     

Relationships between morphological and sedimentological parameters in source‐to‐sink systems: a basis for predicting semi‐quantitative characteristics in subsurface systems

The study of source‐to‐sink systems relates long‐term variations in sediment flux to morphogenic evolution of erosional–depositional systems. These variations are caused by an intricate combination of autogenic and allogenic forcing mechanisms that operate on multiple time scales – from individual transport events to large‐scale filling of basins. In order to achieve a better understanding of how these mechanisms influence morphological characteristics on different scales, 29 submodern source‐to‐sink systems have been investigated. The study is based on measurements of morphological parameters from catchments, shelves and slopes derived from a ∼1 km global digital elevation model dataset, in combination with data on basin floor fans, sediment supply, water discharge and deposition rates derived from published literature. By comparing various morphological and sedimentological parameters within and between individual systems, a number of relationships governing system evolution and behaviour are identified. The results suggest that the amount of low‐gradient floodplain area and river channel gradient are good indicators for catchment storage potential. Catchment area and river channel length is also related to shelf area and shelf width, respectively. Similarly to the floodplain area, these parameters are important for long‐term storage of sediment on the shelf platform. Additionally, the basin floor fan area is correlative to the long‐term deposition rate and the slope length. The slope length thus proves to be a useful parameter linking proximal and distal segments in source‐to‐sink systems. The relationships observed in this study provide insight into segment scale development of source‐to‐sink systems, and an understanding of these relationships in modern systems may result in improved knowledge on internal and external development of source‐to‐sink systems over geological time scales. They also allow for the development of a set of semi‐quantitative guidelines that can be used to predict similar relationships in other systems where data from individual system segments are missing or lacking.     

Scenarios of Future Climate Change: Effects on Frost Occurrence and Severity in the Maritime Uplands of Northern England

Changes in annual frost frequency and annual frost accumulation associated with a variety of temperature change scenarios are mapped for northern England. Estimates of future changes are obtained through application of analytical theory to convert predictions of mean daily minimum temperatures and their inter-diurnal variability to accumulated frost degrees and frost frequency. The baseline climate is provided by regression analysis of surface data involving up to ten terrain variables. Future scenarios include warm and cold analogues, maritime and continental airflow scenarios, arbitrary warming and two general circulation model (GCM) simulations: UKHI (United Kingdom Meteorological Office High Resolution GCM Equilibrium Experiment) and GISS (Goddard Institute for Space Studies). Considerable contrasts emerge between scenarios, with substantial reductions in frost frequency and accumulation in the two GCM 2 *CO₂ simulations. This is to be expected in a maritime area where small changes in temperature have a large influence on parameters involving threshold temperatures. Increases in frost occur under the continental airflow scenario. Changes in frost do not necessarily complement those in accumulated warmth, and therefore indices combining possible changes in warmth and frost are helpful.     

An All-Season Synoptic Climatology of Air Pollution in the U.S.-Mexico Border Region*

The potential exists for widespread air quality problems in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands. Climate and weather are major factors governing the behavior of air pollution, and thus there is a need for greater understanding of border-region air pollution climatology. This paper presents a synoptic climatology of the 850 mb atmospheric circulation for the U.S.-Mexico border region, and an accompanying analysis of relationships between synoptic conditions and ground-level ozone. The synoptic methodology employs high-pass filtering to enable comparisons of all seasons, and it uses modified multiple k means clustering to identify six characteristic circulation patterns. The climatology succinctly summarizes important spatial and temporal complexities of border region circulation, including various pressure configurations, the seasonality of those patterns, and associated weather conditions across the region. These results are linked with ozone data for four border-region cities, and the subsequent findings highlight systematic seasonal and region-wide variations in ozone pollution corresponding to patterns of controlling climatic factors. Three high-ozone scenarios are identified, each of which selectively affects a different area or time of year.     

南极长城站气象观测与研究

1980年以来,中国对南极的气象观测和研究已取得了显著进展.1985年2月在乔治王岛建立了南极长城气象站,国际站号为89058,此后一直进行天气观测,并向世界天气监视网发出报告.近年来,根据观测资料并结合南极和南半球其他资料,开展了极区气旋、影晌南极半岛的天气系统、大气化学、高层大气、辐射特点、南极海冰状态与气候变化关系等项目研究.这些研究对了解南极当地气候的形成、发展和变化及其对全球气候的影响提供了重要资料.     

Widespread Occurrence of Ephemeral Funnel Hoarfrost and Related Air Ventilation in Coarse‐Grained Sediments of a Relict Rock Glacier in the Seckauer Tauern Range,Austria

This paper examines the occurrence of ephemeral hoarfrost crystals at funnel openings (funnel hoarfrost) detected between large blocks at the surface of the presumably relict Schöneben Rock Glacier. Field mapping on 25 November 2011 identified 51 individual funnel openings with notable hoarfrost crystals distributed over the entire rock glacier. Hoarfrost was no longer detectable a few days after the initial mapping campaign. At least in the period 20–25 November 2011 temperature conditions at the rock glacier surface were favourable for hoarfrost formation and preservation as indicated by different types of measurements. A period of 24–48 h of hoarfrost‐suitable weather conditions would have been sufficient to form the observed hoarfrost if crystal growth rates of 2–4 mm h^?1 are assumed. The void systems with funnel hoarfrost seem to be rather localised and limited in horizontal (10s of metres) and vertical (some metres) extent. Presumably the observed funnel hoarfrost was caused by the so‐called chimney effect, although no larger reversible air circulation systems with warm air exhalation were identified. Continuous ground temperature data from several sites at the rock glacier surface (period November 2011–December 2012) showed that hoarfrost sites are cooler and thermally buffered compared with non‐hoarfrost sites at similar elevations. This seems to be related to the decoupling of the air above the rock glacier and the pore air during periods of atmospheric warming. Only the combination of specific micro‐climatic (temperature/humidity), geometric (open void systems) and sedimentological (grain size/sediment structure) conditions allow the formation of the ephemeral funnel hoarfrost at this rock glacier.     

Sediment partitioning,continental slopes and base‐of‐slope systems

Deciphering the role slope topography plays in partitioning sediment on siliciclastic continental slope and base‐of‐slope systems helps our understanding of slope depositional processes in significant ways: (1) by validation of large‐scale depositional process models for continental margins, (2) by validation of numerical basin‐scale stratigraphic forward models used to test and deploy source‐to‐sink (S2S) concepts and (3) by creating models for setting reservoir presence and quality expectations in frontier areas poorly constrained by wells and seismic. A global database consisting of >700 km of drilled stratigraphy provide empirical rock data lacking from most S2S studies. Analysis of calibrated seismic stratigraphic units characterised using the contextual framework laid out in this paper show that both gross depositional environments (GDEs) and sand content occur across slope profiles in systematic ways. The challenge in using these observations to quantify reservoir risk and uncertainty lies with relating the observations to depositional processes that can be used to characterise frontier basins that lack calibration. Depositional process‐based understanding encoded in 3D stratigraphic forward models (SFM) can simulate both lithologies and GDEs providing broad predictions for exploration at the scale of an entire basin or slope system. Stratigraphic forward models allow the integration of S2S understanding and provide a framework for testing sediment‐partitioning hypotheses in frontier settings. Valid S2S models must balance sediment yield from the source catchments with sinks, and be consistent with basin specific observations. The proportions of GDEs across the slope provide additional validation criteria to ensure the models are plausible.     

内蒙古半干旱草原沙尘天气对近地层微气象学特征影响分析

利用锡林浩特国家气候观象台2011年4-5月近地层微气象、地表辐射和湍流通量观测数据,对比分析了内蒙古典型半干旱草原下垫面在晴天、扬沙和沙尘暴天气下各气象要素、地表辐射分量和能量平衡的变化特征。对于半干旱草原区,地面风速越大沙尘天气越强;沙尘过程开始前地面空气较暖,开始后地面空气转为相对较冷的状态;沙尘气溶胶含量越高,5 cm地温日变化趋势越弱,在沙尘过程中5 cm地温值越小。沙尘气溶胶含量越高,太阳总辐射越弱,大气长波辐射越强;地表反射辐射与总辐射有相同的日变化特征;沙尘气溶胶白天使净辐射值减小,夜间使净辐射值增大。沙尘天气直接辐射衰减非常明显,而且散射辐射在总辐射中占很大的比重。沙尘气溶胶对紫外辐射的削弱很强,并且沙尘含量越高,对紫外辐射的削弱越强。沙尘气溶胶的辐射强迫作用对地表能量平衡产生影响,使向上的感热和潜热输送减弱,使向上的土壤热通量增强或向下的土壤热通量减弱。