The application of stepwise discriminant analysis to geochemical data from the host rocks of the Sullivan Pb-Zn-Ag deposit, Kimberley, B.C., Canada

The Sullivan Pb-Zn-Ag massive sulphide deposit in southeastern British Columbia occurs within middle Proterozoic argillite, siltstone and quartz wacke of the Purcell Group. Rock samples were collected from the hangingwall and footwall of the eastern section of the mine and from outcrop up to 50 km from the Sullivan deposit. The samples were analyzed for Cu, Pb, Zn, S, Mn, Ba, Fe, K, Ca, Na and specific conductance. A stepwise discriminant analysis applied to the analytical data determined the group of variables that differentiate between hangingwall, footwall and outcrop or “Background” samples. Hangingwall and footwall rock samples were most effectively discriminated from “background” rock samples on the basis of specific conductance with Cu, Pb, S, Na, and Ba selected as less efficient discriminators. The variables that discriminate hangingwall from footwall rock samples are Cu, Zn and S. The selection of the discriminating variables in each case can be explained in terms of the chemical changes that occur as a result of host rock alteration and sulphide deposition during the mineralizing event at the Sullivan deposit.Stepwise discriminant analysis was used to reduce a number of potential pathfinder variables to an optimum group of pathfinder variables. These optimum pathfinders represent the variables that most effectively differentiate the host rocks of the Sullivan deposit from rocks outside of the mineralized zone that apparently do not contain massive sulphide mineralization.     

Electrogeochemical patterns in surface soils - Detection of blind mineralization beneath exotic cover, Thalanga, Queensland, Australia

The problem of using surface geochemical exploration techniques in areas of very thick and electrically conductive weathering residuum is common to much of Australia. At the Elura deposit (New South Wales) a distinct electrogeochemical H⁺ anomaly can be detected in the top few cm of residual soil above about 100 m of conductive residual overburden. In the present paper the results of an investigation of the much more difficult problem of detecting sulfide mineralization beneath thick conductive transported overburden are described.The objective of the study was to demonstrate that sulfide mineralization beneath thick transported overburden can be detected by geochemical patterns in surface soils in the context of an electrogeochemical model of dispersion.The Thalanga massive sulfide deposit in northeast Queensland has at least 4 million tonnes of 15% combined Zn, Pb and Cu. The mineralized horizon lies at the contact between rhyolitic and dacitic rocks of the Cambro-Ordovician Mt. Windsor Volcanics. The deposit is covered by transported cemented Tertiary terrigenous clayey sandstones and grits; these are electrically conductive and vary in thickness from 0 to 70 m.Near-surface soil samples were collected along five traverses normal to the strike of mineralization. The traverses were located to give 0 m, 1 m, 30 m, 50 m, and 70 m overburden thicknesses; there is no known significant mineralization along the last traverse which is assumed to be background, and there is a small gossan where the overburden is absent.Dispersion patterns influenced by electrogeochemical processes should result in relatively low values for ions over massive sulfides with lateral peaks; this has been termed a “rabbit-ear” anomaly. “Rabbit-ear” anomalies in surface soils for H⁺, Cu, and Zn occur over the sulfide zone. The H⁺ pattern is better defined where there is a significant depth of overburden (where the anomaly is about 500 m wide). The Cu anomaly is 300–600 m wide, and the Zn anomaly is 450–675 m wide.Even where the overburden is 50 m thick, anomalous “rabbit-ear” anomalies for H⁺ and Zn are clearly identifiable, but the anomaly for Cu is a single peak of 20 ppm over the hanging wall. It is suggested that the results of this work convincingly demonstrate that at Thalanga surface soil samples may reliably be used to detect massive sulfide deposits - even where they are effectively blind beneath a considerable thickness of transported and conductive overburden. The processes of dispersion are speculated to be diffusion, and it is argued that the pattern-controlling mechanism is electrochemical.     

Laboratory and field evidence in support of the electrogeochemically enhanced migration of ions through glaciolacustrine sediment

Ionic aureoles, overlying or contiguous to massive sulphide occurrences, are postulated to have been emplaced as a result of natural galvanic forces. The occurrences of these galvanic forces, most commonly referred to as the self-potential or spontaneous polarization phenomena, are well documented, but ionic migration in response to these electrical forces remained to be proven conclusively.The purpose of this study was to attempt to document ionic migration attributable solely to electrogeochemical transport. Pleistocene glaciolacustrine sediments rich in clay-size particles was the geological substrate chosen to minimize migration processes other than those of electrogeochemical transport.Laboratory experiments which simulated a field situation and utilized the radioisotope ⁶⁵Zn as a tracer, revealed a readily detectable diffusion of Zn²⁺ into glaciolacustrine clay; the distance of penetration of the Zn²⁺ being significantly increased by the application of a DC electrical potential, similar in magnitude to a natural self-potential. The rate of diffusion was greatest around the margins of the cathodic electrode located at the base of the clay layers; the areas shown to have the greatest current density. The resulting pattern of Zn penetration into the clay, when viewed in a vertical section, showed a double peaked increase in Zn concentration on either side, and a distinct decrease in Zn penetration directly above this cathode. Extrapolation of the average diffusion coefficient found for Zn²⁺ (D₀ = 6.3 × 10⁻⁹cm s⁻¹) to other ions commonly associated with base metal deposits, revealed that only H⁺ could be expected to move through appreciable thicknesses (>20 m) of clay in the 8000 years since sediment deposition.The hypothesis that H⁺ would diffuse through varved clay, and that the resulting pattern would be predictably modified by a self-potential field generated by an oxidizing sulphide body, was tested over the Magusi River volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit near Noranda, Quebec. The organic soil horizon (H) and top of the clay soil layer (C) were sampled and analyzed for conductivity, pH, and other major and minor elements. The mineral horizon revealed distinct changes in conductivity, pH, Ca, Mg, and Fe above the contacts of the hanging wall and footwall of the sulphide horizon, thus producing a double-peaked “rabbit-ear” anomalous pattern. The H soil horizon, when corrections for variable “total” element and carbon concentrations were applied, showed clear anomalies in Fe and other pH sensitive elements. A ratio of EDTA Fe/TOTAL Fe to total organic carbon revealed the best “rabbit-ear” anomaly above the sulphide horizoon. The use of organic horizon geochemistry as a method of evaluating EM conductors overlain by water-saturated lacustrine sediments is recommended.     

Geochemical investigations associated with the Wilga and Currawong massive sulphide deposits, Benambra, Victoria

The Wilga and Currawong copper-zinc massive sulphide deposits in northeastern Victoria occur within a sequence of Silurian volcanics and sediments. The Wilga deposit which was discovered in mid 1978 consists of a single lens while the Currawong deposit, discovered in early 1979, consists of at least two lenses.The first indication of the presence of base metal mineralization in the area was provided by an assessment of stream sediment geochemical data contained in open-file Exploration Licence reports at the Victorian Department of Minerals and Energy.The massive sulphide mineralization does not outcrop, but the ore horizons are weakly mineralized and give rise to stringer gossans as far as 150 m up dip from ore grade mineralization. These can be identified by their trace element chemistry (anomalous values of Bi, Fe, As, Au, Pb, Hg, Se, Co, Ag and Mn) corresponding to the trace element signature of both stringer and massive sulphides.Soils in the area are essentially skeletal and residual with some colluvial movement on the steeper slopes. The soils are highly anomalous in Cu, Pb, and Zn over the projected horizon of the Wilga mineralization and the No. 2 lens at Currawong.The stream sediment responses at both Wilga and Currawong result from a combination of chemical and elastic dispersion. Downslope from the surface expression of the Wilga mineralization a spring discharges directly into the Tambo River. The spring has a very low pH and is rich in base metals resulting in enhanced metal values in both stream water and stream sediments.Analyses of selected samples of the more prominent vegetation species have failed to show a clear relationship to the mineralization.     

Assessment of massive sulphide base metal targets using lead isotopes in soils

An assessment is made of the use of lead isotopes in soils as an exploration tool for concealed lead-rich base metal massive sulphide deposits, using four case histories in southeast Australia as examples. Case history 1 covers soil profiles (< 1 m depth) unrelated to mineralization in which the lead isotope ratios exhibit variation with depth and are different from those for massive sulphide deposits. Case history 2 covers six shallow (< 0.4 m depth) profiles from two traverses over the concealed Elura Zn-Pb-Ag deposit in central western New South Wales. For one traverse over completely concealed (blind) sulphides, no isotopic or geochemical signature of the orebody could be detected. In two profiles from the other traverse, for depths of 0.15 m and 0.3–0.45 m, the lead isotopic ratios in the soils are identical with those in the ore (the target isotope ratios). Case history 3 covers two occurrences of Silurian volcanogenic Cu-Zn-Pb mineralization at the Benambra prospect in northeast Victoria. The isotopic ratios for the soils are identical with those in the sulphides and the isotopic signature of the sulphides is also detectable in traverses where no obvious surface anomaly is developed. Case history 4 is an undrilled anomaly in Silurian shales and felsic volcanics where the isotope ratios in B horizon soils are consistent with those of the target isotopic signature.The information from these case histories suggests that the lead isotopic analysis of soils will be a useful exploration tool for concealed mineralization, although at the present stage of research it appears that its application may be limited to shallowly buried (< 100 m) targets or deeply buried targets with an extensive oxidation profile. Its main advantage over conventional geochemical techniques is its ability to discriminate between similar geochemical anomalies arising from different styles of mineralization, as illustrated by an example from Benambra.     

Evaluation of lake sediment surveys using the relationship of metal tenor to organic content

In geochemical surveys, including those of lake sediments, it is convenient to classify logarithmic cumulative frequency distributions of elements as anomalous, background, or intermediate. The third, and commonest, group presents the dilemma - Is a given distribution in that group tending towards an anomalous or a background distribution? Data from a series of surveys suggest that the relationship of loss on ignition to metal tenor can be used as an indicator of an element's “potential” or “availability” in the region of the survey. In turn, increased availability implies an anomalous source, such as an ore deposit. Areas with the best potential are considered to be those where logarithmic cumulative distributions of particular elements have the same or greater positive slopes than the associated loss on ignition distribution. The method does not define areas within the survey that can be considered more anomalous, only whether or not the given survey area exhibits a greater than expected concentration of a given element.     

Electrogeochemical techniques in deeply weathered terrain in Australia

Measurement of H⁺ ion and conductance of aqueous soil slurries as an exploration technique is conceptually attractive for use in exploration in Australia where large parts of the land surface are mantled by very thick leached weathering residuum. The common development of conductive horizons and the generally alkaline nature of the soils, however, raised doubts about its applicability.Tests have been conducted over a number of Australian deposits, mostly over massive sulphide deposits, e.g., Elura and Mt. Bulga in New South Wales. At Elura a totally weathered conductive zone extends down to about 100 m and the overlying soils are Red Earths, frequently calcareous; at Mt. Bulga the soils are skeletal podzols and the weathering is less intensive.At both deposits characteristic “rabbit-ear” anomalies, with a central peak in some instances, for H⁺ ion are recorded in surface soils. Conductance anomalous patterns are either sympathetic or mirror images of the H⁺ ion pattern, depending upon local conditions.At Elura there is no conventional geochemical response in the soils over part of the deposit, and there is a very strong transported Pb anomaly for a distance of about 1300 m southwest of the deposit. There are characteristic H⁺ ion and conductance responses over the entire orebody, and there is no H⁺ ion and conductance response over the transported Pb anomaly. At Mt. Bulga a clear H⁺ anomaly occurs over sulphides covered by 60 m of barren rock.The results demonstrate the potential usefulness of electrogeochemical techniques in Australia to detect deeply buried sulphides under conditions of extreme weathering.     

Sedimentary facies of barataria bay,Louisiana determined by multivariate statistical techniques

A multivariate statistical strategy employing cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and ordination was used to classify and interpret depositional environments of Barataria Bay, Louisiana, from grain-size data tabulated by Krumbein and Aberdeen (1937). Weight-percent whole-phi variables for 69 samples were tested for redundancy using R-mode cluster analysis. These samples were partitioned into five environmentally significant facies using Q-mode cluster analysis: (1) beach-ridge sand; (2) shallow wave-zone sand; (3) channel sand and silty sand; (4) channel-margin silty sand; and (5) low-energy sandy silt and clayey silt. Then the classification was extended with discriminant analysis to the remaining 29 samples which exhibited incipient flocculation and whose constituents did not total unity. Environments of deposition were associated with each facies following the method of Visher (1969) and using gradient analysis on a two-dimensional Q-mode ordination. Wilk's lambda and discriminant analysis tested the statistical significance of these facies; they were further tested by comparing their distribution with field relations and known environmental processes.     

The partitioning of copper among selected phases of geologic media of two porphyry copper districts, Puerto Rico

In experiments designed to determine the manner in which copper is partitioned among selected phases that constitute geologic media, we have applied the five-step sequential extraction procedure of Chao and Theobald to the analysis of drill core, soils, and stream sediments of the Rio Vivi and Rio Tanama porphyry copper districts of Puerto Rico. The extraction procedure affords a convenient means of determining the trace-metal content of the following fractions: (1) Mn oxides and “reactive” Fe oxides; (2) “amorphous” Fe oxides; (3) “crystalline” Fe oxides; (4) sulfides and magnetite; and (5) silicates. An additional extraction between steps (1) and (2) was performed to determine organic-related copper in stream sediments.The experimental results indicate that apportionment of copper among phases constituting geologic media is a function of geochemical environment. Distinctive partitioning patterns were derived from the analysis of drill core from each of three geochemical zones: (a) the supergene zone of oxidation; (b) the supergene zone of enrichment; and (c) the hypogene zone; and similarly, from the analysis of; (d) soils on a weakly leached capping; (e) soils on a strongly leached capping; and (f) active stream sediment.The experimental results also show that geochemical contrasts (anomaly-to-background ratios) vary widely among the five fractions of each sampling medium investigated, and that at least one fraction of each medium provides substantially stronger contrast than does the bulk medium. Fraction (1) provides optimal contrast for stream sediments of the district; fraction (2) provides optimal contrast for soils on a weakly leached capping; fraction (3) provides optimal contrast for soils on a strongly leached capping.Selective extraction procedures appear to have important applications to the orientation and interpretive stages of geochemical exploration. Further investigation and testing of a similar nature are recommended.     

Interpretation of a detailed rock geochemical survey around mathiati mine, Cyprus

A reconnaissance rock geochemical survey defined the general area of the Mathiati pyrite deposit in Cyprus as anomalous; the results of a detailed study within a radius of two and one-half kilometres of the deposit are described in this paper.Individual samples from Mathiati are classified as anomalous or background using mathematical functions derived from the reconnaissance geochemical data. These functions are of two types: a discriminant function which is calculated by computer, and a determinative function which is derived graphically.The results from applying the functions to the Mathiati data are evaluated and compared. It is concluded that while none of the individual techniques described uniquely defines the mine, a combination of several techniques identifies the mine area as the primary target.     

Organic matter scavenging of copper, zinc, molybdenum, iron and manganese, estimated by a sodium hypochlorite extraction (pH 9.5)

The importance of trace metal scavenging by organic matter in geochemical samples was estimated using an alkaline sodium hypochlorite extraction to leach copper, zinc, molybdenum, iron and manganese from a variety of soils, and stream and lake sediments collected on the Nechako plateau, central British Columbia. The reagent oxidizes or dissolves most forms of organic matter, together with any sulphide minerals, to give strongly coloured extracts containing the associated trace elements at a pH where solution of other sample fractions is at a minimum. Metals precipitated due to alkaline conditions are redissolved by a succeeding distilled-water leach (pH 3.0 ± 0.3).A large fraction of the copper, zinc, molybdenum, and manganese held within the organic fraction of the A soil horizon is liberated whereas only minor amounts of copper, zinc, and manganese are released from inorganic soil (B and C) horizons. Molybdenum, however, is relatively soluble in all soils as the molybdate ion. Despite similar concentrations of organic matter in A horizon soils and stream sediments the latter release a lower proportion of their trace element content. Behaviour of the organic fraction of lake sediments varies from lake to lake and there is great variability in the association of copper, zinc, molybdenum and manganese with organic matter even within the same lake.The presence of organic matter in samples subjected to other partial extractions can be a deleterious factor if the organic fraction is not first removed by a hypochlorite extraction.     

Identification of diagnostic geochemical alteration in the wallrocks of archean volcanic-exhalative massive sulfide deposits

The present investigation is concerned with the identification of diagnostic lithogeochemical alteration signatures around volcanic-exhalative massive sulfide deposits in the Superior Province, with the overall objective of deriving lithogeochemical criteria, applicable in the search for new deposits of this type.Previous work on these deposits has indicated that, in general, the footwall alteration halo is marked by iron and magnesium enrichment, and calcium and sodium depletion. These features are often only detectable if the over-riding effects of igneous differentiation are compensated. It is apparent that the relative contribution of individual elements to the geochemical alteration varies from deposit to deposit, preventing the recognition of any universal geochemical alteration criterion.The role of discriminant analysis has been examined to establish the possibility of the technique indicating a more reliable expression of geochemical alteration. Discriminant analysis establishes the optimum weighted combination of variables to distinguish two or more populations from each other, in this case mineralized from barren environments. The application of the procedure to the data relating to the composition of wall rock associated with eight volcanic-exhalative massive sulfide deposits has drawn attention to the existence of two distinct types of alteration. The Joutel and Poirier deposits are characterized by Fe₂O₃, MgO, Zn and Ag enrichment, and CaO and Na₂O depletion; this alteration style has been termed the “Joutel” type. At the South Bay, Sturgeon Lake and Mobrun deposits, Na₂O is also strongly depleted, but Fe₂O₃ and MgO are usually depleted and K₂O is strongly enriched; this alteration style has been termed the “South Bay” type. Both of these alteration styles are displayed at the Mattabi and East Waite deposits. “Joutel” type alteration appears to be in close spatial association with discharge vents, while “South Bay” alteration is more laterally widespread and is representative of at least one deposit thought to be formed distally from its associated discharge vent.These geochemical signatures are more strongly expressed in pyroclastic rocks, and andesites, relative to massive rocks, and rhyolites.The geochemical alteration patterns delineated in this way constitute significantly larger exploration targets than the readily observable mineralogical alteration haloes.Results of the current investigations indicate that the mineralizing processes associated with Archean volcanic-exhalative massive sulfide deposits have given rise to more than oversimplification to aim exploration at the detection of a single type of response. The application of discriminant analysis provides a potential means of identifying and comparing as many responses as are present at the deposits studied. In this respect it is superior to any univariate statistical method, and has considerable application in exploration.     

Multivariate analysis of contamination in the mining district of Linares (Jaén, Spain)

Historically, a significant level of mining activity has taken place in the batholite-related metalogenic enclave of Linares (Jaén province, Spain), associated with Pb–Ag, Cu, Zn and Fe sulphides and Ba sulphate mineralization, though mining here has now been abandoned. Additionally, the area features a significant amount of urban, industrial and agricultural activities. These considerations, taken together, explain the need to assess the levels of concentration of trace elements and to determine their relationship with geogenic and anthropogenic factors. For geochemical characterisation of the soil, the region has been divided into 126 grid squares with an area of 1 km². For each grid square, 32 trace elements have been analysed. Elemental concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Mn have been included in statistical analyses. According to the reference levels established by the Regional Government (Junta de Andalucía), soils in a large part of the study area require amendment applications. The comparison of the mean content for each grid square with the reference levels reveals a significant degree of contamination of the soil by Cu (719 mg kg⁻¹), Pb (22,964 mg kg⁻¹) and As (100 mg kg⁻¹) in those grid squares affected by metallurgic activities. By means of factor analysis, four scores have been identified which together account for 80% of the variance observed. The first score is highly correlated with the logarithms of the variables Fe, Th, La, Ti, Al, Na, K, Zr, Y, Nb, Be and Sc. It is a “natural” factor that indicates the type of soil matrix (fundamentally granites and, to a lesser degree, Triassic materials). The second score shows high correlation with the logarithms of the variables Mo, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Co, Mn, As, Cd, Sb, Ba, W and Sn, and is the “metallization” factor related to the mineralization that has been exploited. The third score is mainly determined by the logarithms of the variables Sr, Ca and Mg. This is a “natural” factor that indicates a type of carbonate soil matrix (Miocene). Finally, the fourth factor groups the logarithms of the variables Ni, V and Cr, elements that are associated with the combustion of fossil fuels. Analysis of the patterns of each of the factors identified enabled achieving a global characterisation of the study area. Cluster analysis of the observations showed there to be five clusters relating to the grid squares, differentiated by lithologies and degrees of contamination. These clusters are used to determine the background of granite and to calculate the anomalous load.     

The distribution of Hg, Ba, Cu and Zn in the vicinity of cupriferous sulfide deposits, Troodos complex, Cyprus

A geochemical rock- and soil-sampling program was carried out in the vicinity of eight concealed “Cyprus type” deposits, occurring in marginal mafic to intermediate metapillow lavas of the Troodos Ophiolite Complex. The mineralization of massive and stockwork sulfide ore is characterized by the predominance of pyrite, intergrown with less chalcopyrite and minor amounts of sphalerite.Background values of Hg are in the range of 8–12 ppb for soils and 3–6 ppb for surface rocks. Anomaly/background ratios of 10:1 (soils) and 5:1 (rocks) have been found only, where Hg migrated along channels formed by faults cutting shallow-seated mineralization. Here, Hg sometimes shows significant correlations with Cu, Zn, Ba and exceptionally with Co. However in one case an Hg anomaly in soils and surface rocks was detected directly over a deposit. The use of Hg as indicator element for these types of deposits is therefore limited. Buried mineralization may be delineated more distinctly by Cu, Zn and Ba.     

A catchment basin approach to the analysis of reconnaissance geochemical-geological data from Albay Province,Philippines

A systematic approach for identifying mineral exploration target areas from reconnaissance stream sediment data without sufficient a-priori control information has been demonstrated in a portion of western Albay Province in the southern Bicol Peninsula of the Philippines. The approach involved devising a rapid method of catchment basin mapping using a geographic information system (GIS) so that the areal influence of the catchment basins may be incorporated in the geochemical data analysis. Areal proportions of mapped rock units occurring in the sample catchment basins and observed Mn and Fe contents in stream sediments are used as independent variables in multiple regression analysis to predict element contents in stream sediments related to lithologic and chemical controls. The predicted element contents are filtered-out from the original data to leave residuals in which the effects of other factors (e.g., mineralization) may be seen. A simple correction for the effects of downstream dilution is applied; this allows for the different sizes of the sample catchment basins so that positive geochemical residuals are enhanced. The inter-relationship of the different positive residuals in ‘highly enriched’ samples are investigated through principal components analysis to determine and quantify an ‘anomalous geochemical signature’. Lastly, the ‘anomalous geochemical signature’ is integrated with ‘proximity’ to faults/fractures to determine favourable target areas. For the test region, the lithologic controls explain between 80% and 100% of the variability in most of the elements studied. Chemical controls account for generally less than 5% of the variability in the data. Most of the dilution-corrected residuals reveal high relative enrichment in certain areas underlain by andesite and/or diorite. An anomalous Cu-Mg-Fe-Zn geochemical signature is disclosed by the principal components analysis of the dilution-corrected residuals in ‘highly enriched’ samples. Most sample catchment basins defined by this ‘anomalous geochemical signature’ pertain to areas underlain by andesitic rocks. Integration of the ‘anomalous geochemical signature’ and ‘proximity’ to faults/fractures reveals that some of these anomalous sample catchment basins are favourable target areas. These areas are interpreted to contain andesite-hosted stockwork or stringer zones that once formed part of a complete stratigraphic sequence of a volcanogenic massive sulphide occurrence. The results demonstrate the usefulness and ability of the procedures followed to extract significant anomalies from the reconnaissance geochemical data without the benefit of sufficient a-priori control data to aid in anomaly recognition. Similar procedures could also be applied elsewhere.     

Lithogeochemistry of hypogene, supergene and leached cap samples, berg porphyry copper deposit, British Columbia

In this paper we examine the influence of the development of supergene oxide and sulphide zones on the original hypogene geochemical patterns at the Berg deposit, British Columbia.The deposit, in the alpine zone of the Tahtsa Range, was logged (GEOLOG) and sampled in fourteen diamond drill holes along a N—S section and from outcrop where possible. Anomalous populations of major and trace elements were defined using log probability graphs and a sequential extraction (10% hydrochloric acid— ammonium oxalate — potassium chlorate/hydrochloric acid — nitric/perchloric acids) was used to study the distribution of elements between carbonate, oxide, sulphide and silicate phases.Core logs and assays show that primary ore minerals (chalcopyrite—molybdenite) extend from the outer part of the porphyry intrusion into the surrounding hornfels where the best grades of copper are found close to the intrusive contact. Maximum copper grades, however, result from development of a supergene enrichment blanket. Within the hypogene zone, principal lithogeochemical patterns reflect the differences in composition of the hornfels, originally intermediate to basic volcanics, and the intrusion, as well as the introduction of F and trace metals (Cu, Mo, Pb, Zn and Ag). Distribution of Ag is broadly comparable to that of Cu and Mo whereas anomalous Pb and Zn are present as peripheral haloes around the potential ore zones.Emergence of strongly acidic ground water and precipitation of iron oxides, indicate that leaching processes are active. Furthermore, although primary sulphides, associated with both their oxidation products and secondary sulphides, can still be found in surface samples, sequential extractions on drill core clearly indicate vertical redistribution of copper between oxide, carbonate and sulphide phases. Using ratios of metal concentrations to TiO₂, the surface concentrations of trace metals can be compared with those at depth and the relative amount of enrichment or depletion can be quantified. In highly leached sites the absolute concentrations of Cu, Mn and Zn are low which is reflected in TiO₂ ratios of <1. However, Mo, Pb and Ag are enriched at the same sites (TiO₂ ratios >1). In areas where physical erosion exceeds leaching (topographic lows) primary sulphides co-exist with secondary sulphide and oxide minerals. Here Cu, Mo, Pb, Zn, Mn and Ag are enriched. Fluorine is relatively unaffected by the leaching process. It would appear signature for a cale alkaline Cu and Mo porphyry deposit in an area where outcrop was intensely leached.     

Petrologic and geochemical characteristics of “barkinite” from the Dahe mine, Guizhou Province, China

Although “barkinite” has long been studied by many geologists, its geochemical characteristics and environment of deposition are still not known in detail. In order to study the petrography and geochemical characteristics of “barkinite”, coal samples from two Permian coal seams were taken from the Dahe mine, Guizhou Province. The samples were separated into maceral fractions, and then analyzed by microscopical, isotopic, Rock-Eval, and geochemical methods. The microscopical results indicate that “barkinite” occurs as four main types. According to their relationship to other maceral groups, “barkinite” is ostensibly formed under variably dry–wet or oxidizing–reducing conditions. The extract yield, isotope data and Rock-Eval values of “barkinite” are different from other macerals. Microscopical and geochemical results indicate that “barkinite” forms part of the liptinite group.     

Surface geochemical and biogeochemical expression of base‐metal mineralization at Woodlawn,New South Wales,Australia

The presence of base‐metal mineralization at Woodlawn was first recognised early in 1968 when a roadside reconnaissance geochemical sampling survey, conducted over felsic volcanic rocks in the Goulburn‐Tarago area, encountered anomalous B horizon soils containing up to 200 ppm Cu, 800 ppm Pb and 300 ppm Zn. Regional soil thresholds have been determined at 50 ppm Cu, 90 ppm Pb and 50 ppm Zn. Chip samples from the subsequently located gossan revealed up to 2000 ppm Cu, 8000 ppm Pb and 2000 ppm Zn, 500 ppm Sn, 25 ppm Ag and 3000 ppm As.

The first grid B horizon soil geochemical survey was conducted in 1968 over the gossan and surrounding area, and repeated with closer spaced sampling in the first half of 1970. The first survey delineated strong Cu (to 1000 ppm) and Pb (to 2500 ppm) anomalies coincident with the gossan zone, and intense hydromorphic zinc anomalies (to 3000 ppm) located down slope from the gossan in residual clay‐soils derived from dolerite bedrock. Threshold values have been determined at 140 ppm Cu, 700 ppm Pb and 580 ppm Zn. Ag and Sn in B horizon soils show pronounced anomalies coincident with the gossan and are suitable metals for geochemical target definition. Of fourteen trace elements determined in 1974 from B and C horizon soils on two lines across the ore zone Cu, Pb, Zn, Se, Ba, Sn and Ag show direct correlation with the mineralization, whereas Cd and Mn show moderate hydromorphic dispersion, having accumulated principally in clay soils derived from dolerite weathering. As, Sb and Bi, whilst responding over the ore zone, show elevated values in soils over hanging‐wall units; Ni and Co show maximum levels in soils over dolerite bedrock.

Bark and leaves of Acacia mearnsii, collected from a line across the gossan, contain anomalous levels of Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn and Ti near the ore zone, and weaker, but clearly anomalous Mn and Ni levels over dolerite bedrock. Both bark and leaves of Acacia mearnsii reflect the presence of concealed mineralization. The shrub Solanum linearifolium grows preferentially over and close to the Woodlawn ore zone, where it contains up to 840 ppm Cu, 250 ppm Pb, 7300 ppm Zn, 6 ppm Sn and 250 ppm Ti in leaf ash compared with levels of 200 ppm Cu, 2 ppm Pb, 400 ppm Zn, 0.8 ppm Sn and 60 ppm Ti in plants growing 1.5 km from the ore zone. This shrub has potential as an indicator of base‐metal mineralization.     

Comparative geochemistry of jasperoids from Carlin-type gold deposits of the western United States

Exploration for Carlin-type gold orebodies in the western United States typically involves sampling and analysis of jasperoid, a distinctive alteration type formed by intense silicification of marine sediments. In this study, rock suites were collected from six orebodies and four similar but barren systems. Jasperoids at all ten systems contain episodically silicified breccias, quartz vein stockworks, elevated As, Sb, Hg, Ba and Tl, and, locally, anomalous Au and Ag. Jasperoids from the four barren systems are as anomalous as jasperoids from the six orebodies in all members of an epithermal geochemical suite, including gold and silver.A database suite containing 272 samples from six of the ten systems was analyzed for 45 elements. Q-mode factor analysis shows that geochemical variance in the epithermal geochemical suite is related to geochemical variance in Li, P, Mn, Ba, Mo, Cr, Co, V, Cd, Ni, U, Zn and Pb. Metalliferous marine black shales are enriched in these elements and are spatially related to Carlin-type deposits.A test suite containing 109 samples from the four remaining systems was analyzed to determine whether a discriminant function derived from the database suite could be applied to exploration. An 8-element function correctly assigned 40 of 42 jasperoid samples collected from the surface at the Carlin and Horse Canyon gold deposits. These results indicate that elements characteristic of metalliferous marine black shales can be used to identify Carlin-type systems with associated gold ore. Gold in Carlin-type orebodies may have been leached from a source-rock sequence which contains metalliferous marine black shales.     

The distribution of iodine and chlorine in soils over lead-zinc mineralisation,East of Glogfawr,mid-Wales

The potential pathfinder elements iodine, as total (I_tot) and watersoluble (I_aq), chlorine (Cl_tot and Cl_aq) together with F, As, Pb, Zn and Cu have been determined in B horizon soils over proved lead-zinc mineralisation east of the disused Glogfawr mine, Dyfed, Wales. Pb and Cu are anomalous in soils over this occurrence while Zn fails to reflect underlying mineralisation. Total and water soluble I and Cl show anomalously high values over the proved mineralisation and also indicate extensions along the trend of the mineralised fracture system to the south-southwest and the north-northeast; these anomalies are more extensive than those formed by Pb or Cu.In the soils analysed there is a strong correlation between I_tot and I_aq and Cl_tot and Cl_aq and it is possible that a simple water-extractable method could be of use in geochemical prospecting.