Glacial Cirques in the Southern Side of the Cantabrian Mountains of Southwestern Europe

A total of 156 glacial cirques located on two different areas in the Cantabrian Mountains (NW Spain) were identified and measured in order to continue and expand the study of these large‐scale erosional forms in European mountains. Environmental variables that may explain cirque distribution (altitude, aspect and lithology), and their most important morphometric features (area, length (L), width (W), headwall height (H), and L/W, L/H and W/H indices), are analysed. Statistical analysis has been applied as indicators of contrast (ANOVA) and association (correlation and regression). Conglomerate analysis (CLUSTER) has been used to discriminate cirque groups based on their morphometric variables. Results show that cirques occur at lower altitudes in the Upper Sil River basin area than in the Montaña Central area due to a lower former equilibrium line altitude (ELA) position. In the Upper Sil River basin, environmental variables appear to have had a strong influence on the location and size of cirques: the largest cirques are located in quartzite rocks at elevations above 2000 m and face N or NE. In Montaña Central, the influence of these factors was more limited as a consequence of higher geological structure control. Cirque sizes generally are modest compared with cirques present in other mountain ranges globally, most likely due to shorter glacial occupancy in the Cantabrian Mountains.     

Morphometric Analysis on the Size, Shape and Areal Distribution of Glacial Cirques in the Maritime Alps (Western French-Italian Alps)

The morphometry of 432 glacial cirques in the Maritime Alps (Western French‐Italian Alps), studied over several years of fieldwork, was analysed with the use of a geographical information system. Some of the parameters automatically evaluated from digital elevation models required an objective and relatively new definition. In particular, cirque length was measured along a line that, from the threshold midpoint, splits the cirque into two equivalent surfaces; cirque width was automatically drawn as the longest line inscribed in the cirque and perpendicular to the length line. Significant correlations were found among the different factors and parameters analysed. In particular, cirque shape analysis showed that cirques develop allometrically in the three dimensions, i.e. more in length and width than in altitudinal range. Nevertheless cirques of the Maritime Alps have a regular, almost circular shape (mean L/W value = 1.07). The correlations among length, width and area are all very high (r²= 0.8–0.9). In terms of size, cirques show a wide range in area from 0.06 to 5.2 km² with a mean value of 0.4 km². The largest cirques are found on SSW‐facing slopes and at high elevations. Small cirques can be found at all altitudes but all those at high elevation are part of compound cirques at the main head valleys. Most cirques (37%) are characterized by a northern aspect; NE and SW are also frequent directions.     

Relationship between solar radiation and the development and morphology of small cirque glaciers (Maladeta Mountain massif, Central Pyrenees, Spain)

Abstract Spatial and temporal variations in radiative fluxes influence glacier mass‐balance in mountain areas. The primary goal of this study was to assess differences in solar radiation on three glacial cirques located in the Maladeta Mountain massif (Central Spanish Pyrenees), and analyse their implications on glacier development and morphology. A quantitative approach is adopted to obtain the values of solar radiation (direct, diffuse and global radiation), combining several field data parameters (measured at 55 control‐points) with the solar radiation modelling package Ecosim. The data obtained confirm that the morphologies of the glacial bodies developed in the three cirques have a good correlation with the spatial variation on solar radiation inputs, favouring also the conservation (Aneto and Coronas cirques) or total vanishing (Llosás cirque) of the glacial remnants analysed here. The study shows how strongly in this Alpine‐Mediterranean context solar radiation — firstly as a function of latitude and time of year, and locally as a function of topographic slope, aspect and shadowing — controls the mass‐balance and the spatial distribution of melting in small glaciers, having an effect on the development of their morphologies.     

Allometric development of glacial cirque form: Geological, relief and regional effects on the cirques of Wales

Headward and downward erosion near glacier sources, at rates exceeding fluvial erosion, is important in recent discussions of orogen development and the limits to relief. This relates to a long history of debate on how the form of glacial cirques develops, which can be advanced by relating shape to size in large data sets. For 260 cirques in Wales, this confirms different rates of enlargement in the three dimensions: faster in length than in width, and slower in vertical dimension whether expressed as overall height range, axial height range or wall height. Maximum gradient, plan closure and number of cols increase with overall size. This allometric development applies over different cirque types, regions and rock types. Headwall retreat, often by collapse following glacial erosion at the base, is faster than downward erosion. Welsh cirques form a scale-specific population and, as in other regions, size variables follow Gaussian distributions on a logarithmic scale. As in England, width commonly exceeds length. Vertical dimensions correlate with length more than with width. Cirque form varies with geology, but also with relief as both vary between mountain groups. The main contrast is between larger, better-developed cirques and higher relief on volcanic rocks in the north-west, and smaller, less-developed cirques and lower relief on sedimentary rocks in the south.     

ESTABLISHING LICHENOMETRIC AGES FOR NINETEENTH- AND TWENTIETH-CENTURY GLACIER FLUCTUATIONS ON SOUTH GEORGIA (SOUTH ATLANTIC)

Glaciers in small mountain cirques on South Georgia respond rapidly and sensitively to changes in South Atlantic climate. The timing and rate of their deglaciation can be used to examine the impact that nineteenth- and twentieth-century climate change has had on the glacial dynamics and terrestrial ecosystems of South Georgia. As part of a reconnaissance study in Prince Olav Harbour (POH), South Georgia, we measured the size of lichens ( Rhizocarpon Ram. em Th. Fr. subgenus. Rhizocarpon group) on ice-free moraine ridges around two small mountain cirques. Our aims were twofold: first, to provide age estimates for lichen colonization, and hence, deglaciation of the moraine ridges, and second, to examine the potential of applying lichenometry more widely to provide deglacial age constraints on South Georgia. In the absence of lichen age-size (dating) curves for South Georgia, we use long-term Rhizocarpon lichen growth-rates from recent studies on sub-Antarctic Islands and the western Antarctic Peninsula to calculate likely age estimates. These data suggest ice retreat from the two outermost moraines occurred between the end of the 'Little Ice Age' (post c. 1870) and the early twentieth century on South Georgia. Lichen colonization of the innermost moraines is probably related to glacier retreat during the second half of the twentieth century, which has been linked to a well-defined warming trend since c. 1950. Patterns of possible nineteenth- and twentieth-century glacial retreat identified in POH need to be tested further by establishing species- and site-specific lichen age-size (dating) curves for South Georgia, and by applying lichenometry to other mountain cirques across South Georgia.     

Local aspect asymmetry of mountain glaciation: A global survey of consistency of favoured directions for glacier numbers and altitudes

Understanding aspect effects on present-day glaciers provides essential background to the palaeoclimatic interpretation of reconstructed former glaciers or glacial cirques. Several factors influencing glacier mass balance vary with slope aspect: these give more glaciers, lower glaciers and possibly larger glaciers on favoured aspects. Their effects can be measured by either vector analysis of the number of glaciers with each aspect or Fourier regression of glacier altitude or size against aspect. Both approaches are applied here to large data sets from the World Glacier Inventory, for all available regions.Favoured aspect is measured by direction of the resultant vector mean and by the direction of minimum glacier altitude, for 51 regions with a total of 66,084 glaciers. The two directions are broadly consistent in mid-latitudes and in the tropics, but large differences occur in the Arctic and Nepal. Poleward aspects dominate, especially in mid-latitudes: radiation receipt is the major factor, with strong wind effects limited to areas with only moderate relief. Strength of asymmetry is measured by vector strength (from glacier numbers) or by a combination of first Fourier coefficients (from glacier altitudes). Measuring two different facets of degree of asymmetry, they are essentially unrelated. The Fourier measure is the best estimate of local climatic asymmetry, as vector strength is more influenced by topography.     

Cryoplanation Terrace Orientation in Alaska

Exploratory analysis of the orientation of 303 cryoplanation terraces in interior and western Alaska lends tentative support to the hypothesis that these landforms develop through localized erosion related to spatial patterns of snow accumulation and ablation. Cryoplanation terraces exhibit orientation patterns similar to those of cirques in several regions of Alaska. In climatically continental east-central Alaska, cryoplanation terraces are developed preferentially on north-facing slopes and the frequency distribution of terrace orientation is similar to but less concentrated than that of glacial cirques. In south-central Alaska, both cirques and terraces have bimodal frequency distributions corresponding to generalized wind patterns that predominated during Pleistocene glaciations. In western Alaska, terraces and cirques have relatively diffuse patterns without preferred orientation. No clear relation is apparent between the orientation of cryoplanation terraces and their size or elevation, although this may be an artifact of the current inability to differentiate terraces by age. Data from the Eagle Summit/Mastodon Dome area in interior Alaska indicate a possible relation between snowline elevation and the concentration of terrace orientation.     

Distribution and effectiveness of nivation in Mediterranean mountains: Peñalara (Spain)

Snow accumulation is responsible for geomorphic and biogeographic processes taking place in the southern sector of the Peñalara massif in central Spain (40°51′N, 3°57′W; max. altitude 2428 m at Pico de Peñalara). This work compares the intensity of nivation on the eastern slope, leeward of the prevailing westerly winds and heavily eroded by glacial activity during the Pleistocene, to that of the western slope on the windward side, unaffected by glacial erosion and completely covered by a thick weathering mantle. On the eastern slope, nivation is effective only where the weathering mantle is exposed or on morainic formations. It does not occur on the landforms derived from glacial erosion. In contrast, the western side shows almost no evidence of snow action except where catastrophic mass movements have altered the regularity of the slope. During the post-glacial epoch, nivation cirques formed in the scars left by mass wasting. In the last 30 years, spring temperatures have increased and this activity has diminished. The pattern of evolution observed at Peñalara can be extrapolated to other Mediterranean mountains with similar characteristics such as marginal glacial activity during the Pleistocene, unconsolidated formations on the summits caused by chemical weathering, and dry, hot summers that can increase the effectiveness of nivation.     

Mid‐ and Large‐Scale Geodiversity Calculation in Fuentes Carrionas (NW Spain) and Serra do Cadeado (Paraná, Brazil): Methodology and Application for Land Management

A state‐of‐the‐art geodiversity concept, its use and scientific development are presented. Methodologies for geodiversity calculation are assessed, as well as their aim and problems. Geodiversity calculation methodology based on biodiversity richness index is explained and applied to two different areas: Fuentes Carrionas, a high mountain mid‐latitude environment in northern Spain, and Serra do Cadeado, a tropical mid‐mountain environment in southern Brasil. A geodiversity map of Fuentes Carrionas proves that glacial cirques over 2000 m a.s.l. keep a high geodiversity related to a periglacial and glacial environment, whereas a geodiversity map of Serra do Cadeado shows that high geodiversity areas are situated at its main structural scarp. Geodiversity calculation needs to take scale and hierarchy issues into account, which makes comparison only possible if the same scale is used. Geodiversity calculation is a useful tool for land management as it defines areas subject to protection due to the richness of abiotic elements. It is also useful in terms of environmental impact assessment and geotourism evaluation at remote areas.     

下垫面因素对喀斯特地区水分利用效率的影响

水分利用效率是衡量陆地生态系统对气候变化响应的重要指标,而下垫面因素通过影响局部气候进而影响水分利用效率。喀斯特地区生态缺水严重且下垫面情况复杂,但目前该区域多个下垫面因素对水分利用效率的综合影响仍不明晰。论文利用MODIS GPP和ET数据集计算中国西南喀斯特地区的水分利用效率,结合岩性组合、土壤类型、土地利用类型及地表粗糙度,采用广义线性模型,揭示了下垫面因素对水分利用效率的综合影响。结果表明：研究区水分利用效率受海拔和喀斯特发育程度综合影响,在空间上从东南向西北逐渐升高。下垫面因素中岩性组合对水分利用效率的影响表现出了喀斯特与非喀斯特地区的差异,喀斯特地区的碳酸盐岩岩性组合对水分利用效率呈负向影响,纯喀斯特岩性组合比非纯喀斯特岩性组合负向影响更强;土壤类型对水分利用效率的影响受分布海拔高度差异、土壤有机质差异及喀斯特与非喀斯特地貌差异3种因素影响;土地利用类型总体上呈植被越茂盛的地类对水分利用效率的正向影响越强的趋势;地表粗糙度的增大先对水分利用效率趋正向影响,后趋于负向影响。碳酸盐岩影响土壤性质,而土壤性质和地表粗糙度共同影响植被来对喀斯特地区的水分利用效率产生综合影响。     

青藏高原东缘山地古冰川沉积物磁化率特点及其影响因素分析

湖泊、黄土与古土壤、深海沉积物等连续沉积体的磁化率变化作为环境变化的替代性指标被广泛应用,然而对于非连续、能够反映特定时段气候变化的沉积体,如冰川沉积物的磁化率却较少涉及.本文通过对青藏高原东缘8 个典型冰川发育山地冰碛物磁化率进行研究,并与黄土、湖泊、深海沉积物以及不同区域的表土磁化率进行对比,采用质量磁化率和频率磁化率探讨冰碛物的磁化率特点及其影响因素.结果表明：青藏高原东缘山地的冰碛物质量磁化率呈宽幅波动,介于(3.01~1808.80)×10^-8 m³·kg^-1,平均值147.84×10^-8 m³·kg^-1;频率磁化率值较低、且波动幅度小,介于0~6.89%,平均值为1.37%.不同时空条件下冰碛物的磁化率特点不同,即不同地点同一冰期磁化率的差异显著;同一地点不同冰期冰碛物的磁化率变化不明显.影响冰碛物磁化率的主导因素是母岩的岩性条件,气候因素起次要作用.     

LATE QUATERNARY MORAINES ALONG THE SEKHOKONG RANGE, EASTERN LESOTHO: CONTRASTING THE GEOMORPHIC HISTORY OF NORTH- AND SOUTH-FACING SLOPES

Considerable Quaternary environmental reconstruction for the high Drakensberg is based on geomorphological and sedimentological work undertaken along the northern aspects of the Sekhokong mountain range of eastern Lesotho. Given that no previous investigations have focused on the southern aspects, this paper documents the observed geomorphology and provides a more complete palaeo-environmental picture for this range. Data on the morphology, sedimentology and micromorphology for two linear debris ridges are presented. It is demonstrated that the two ridges are most likely moraines originating from a small niche glacier. The combined use of macro- and micro-scale sedimentology is proven to be an essential tool in ascribing a glacial process origin for the landforms, given the complex depositional history they have undergone. AMS ages obtained from the deposits (14 700 cal. yrs bp and 19 350 cal. yrs bp ) places these in the time-scale of the Last Glacial Maximum. The study demonstrates rather contrasting aspect-controlled palaegeomorphological environments along the Sekhokong range, which is also reflected in the dissimilar contemporary biophysical micro-environments. It is suggested that the south-facing slopes were dominated by glacial processes during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), as is evident from the moraines, while the proposition for previously described north-facing glacial cirques is rejected based on the absence of erosional/depositional evidence and greater insolation received on these warmerequator-facing slopes. Rather, we propose that the observed north-facing hollows are a product of a multitude of geomorphic processes spanning several tens to hundreds of thousands of years.     

Recalibration of the yellow Rhizocarpon growth curve in the Cordillera Blanca (Peru) and implications for LIA chronology

A new lichen dating method and new moraine observations enabled us to improve the chronology of glacier advances in the Cordillera Blanca (Peru) during the Little Ice Age (LIA). Our results reveal that an early LIA glacial advance occurred around AD 1330 ± 29. However, a second major glacial advance at the beginning of the 17th century overlapped the earlier stage for most glaciers. Hence, this second glacial stage, dated from AD 1630 ± 27, is considered as the LIA maximum glacial advance in the Cordillera Blanca. During the 17th–18th centuries, at least three glacial advances were recorded synchronously for the different glaciers (AD 1670 ± 24, 1730 ± 21, and 1760 ± 19). The moraines corresponding to the two first stages are close to the one in 1630 suggesting a slow recession of about 18% in the total length of the glacier. From the LIA maximum extent to the beginning of the 20th century, the 24 glaciers have retreated a distance of about 1000 m, corresponding to a reduction of 30% in their length. This rate is comparable to that observed during the 20th century. Estimates of palaeo-Equilibrium Line Altitudes show an increase in altitude of about 100 m from the LIA maximum glacial extension at the beginning of the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Because long time series are not available for precipitation and temperature, this glacial retreat is difficult to explain by past climate changes. However, there is a fair correspondence between changes in glacier length and the δ¹⁸O recorded in the Quelccaya ice core at a century timescale. Our current knowledge of tropical glaciers and isotope variations leads us to suggest that this common tropical signal reflects a change from a wet LIA to the drier conditions of today. Finally, a remarkable synchronicity is observed with glacial variations in Bolivia, suggesting a common regional climatic pattern during the LIA.     

Present and Late Pleistocene equilibrium line altitudes in Changbai Mountains, Northeast China

According to the glacial landforms and deposits with the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating results, two glacial stages of the last glacial cycle (LGC) and Late Glacial were identified. The Late Glacial stage (Meteorological Station glacier advance) took place about 11 ka (11.3±1.2 ka), and the last glacial maximum (LGM), named Black Wind Mouth glacier advance, occurred at 20 ka (20.0±2.1 ka). Based on the Ohmura’s formula in which there is a relationship between summer (JJA) atmospheric temperature (T) and the annual precipitation (P) at ELA, the present theoretical equilibrium line altitude (ELAt) in Changbai Mountains was 3380±100 m. Six methods of accumulation–area ratio (AAR), maximum elevation of lateral moraines (MELM), toe–to headwall altitude ratios (THAR), the terminal to summit altitudinal (TSAM), the altitude of cirque floor (CF), and the terminal to average elevation of the catchment area (Hofer) were used for calculation of the former ELAs in different stages. These methods provided the ELA for a range of 2250–2383 m with an average value of 2320±20 m during the LGM, which is 200 m higher than the value of previous investigation. The snowlines during the Late Glacial are 2490 m on northern slope, and 2440 m on western slope. The results show that the snowline on northern slope is 50 m higher than that on western slope during the Late Glacial, and the average snowline is 2465m. The ELA △ values were more than 1000 m during the LGM, and about 920 m lower than now during the Late Glacial stage respectively. Compared with Taiwanese and Japanese mountains in East Asia during the LGM, the effect of the uplift on ELA in Changbai Mountains during the glaciations (i.e. 20 m uplift in the LGM and 11 m in the Late Glacial) is not obvious.     

Structural control of the morphometry of open rock basins, Kananaskis region, Canadian Rocky Mountains

The morphometry of chutes (couloirs), rock funnels, and open cirques are related to the structure of dissected rock masses in the Kananaskis region of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Data for ten morphometric variables were derived from digital elevation models of 56 open rock basins. The basins were classified structurally according to the relative orientations of bedding planes and the rock slopes. A hypothesis of no differences in morphometry among structural classes is rejected from the results of nonparametric analysis of variance and paired comparisons of rank scores. Basins on dip and overdip slopes have a distinct size, and those on anaclinal slopes have a distinct width and shape. Variation in morphometry from low compactness and area/relief (chutes) to high compactness and low area/relief (funnels) to high compactness and area/relief (open cirques) corresponds to a change in dominant structure from orthoclinal to dip-overdip to underdip to anaclinal. The dip of bedding planes relative to the slope of rockwalls controls the mode of initial displacement of joint blocks and, thereby, the spatial distribution of the retreat of rockwalls. The angle between the rock slope and the strike of dipping strata determines whether beds of differing stability form chutes and buttresses (orthoclinal slopes), or extend across rockwalls (cataclinal and anaclinal slopes) and retreat at similar rates to form funnels and open cirques. The optimal structure for large compact rock basins is anaclinal, and the least favourable is cataclinal dip-overdip slopes. Topoclimate and other geologic structures may account for variance in morphometry not explained by differences among structural classes.     

山东中低山丘陵古冰川遗迹质疑

近年来,有关山东中低山丘陵“古冰川遗迹”时有报道,使中国东部第四纪冰川问题在某种意义上再起纷争。为作澄清,通过实地考察对业已报道的“古冰川遗迹”进行质疑,指出其列举的“冰碛垄”“古冰斗”“擦痕”“颤痕”等不符合冰川地貌证据的专有属性和判别标准,冰期划分和雪线重建不符合科学发现与科学事实确证所需的充分条件,即不满足“将古论今”、地貌组合三要素系统配套、成因-环境一致性的判别原则和方法。因此认为,山东中低山丘陵不存在第四纪冰川遗迹。部分学者提出“低海拔型古冰川”的论断,是基于例外主义的泛冰川论,必然会引致“雪球地球”事件进而颠覆第四纪为灵生纪的科学基础。     

A model of relief forming by tectonic uplift and valley incision in orogenesis

A model for the change in shape of interfluves by concurrent tectonics and denudation was developed based on the morphometric attributes of landforms. The tributaries flowing down valley side slopes and dissecting low-relief surfaces on the interfluves are one of the most important elements for relief-forming processes. They were named as β-tributaries. The valleyhead altitude ( H ), the junction altitude ( L ) and the valley length ( l ) of the β-tributary were measured. The altitudinal difference ( h=H−L ), which indicates the local relief, and the average slope of tributary (tan θ= h / L ) were calculated. The regression analyses among H , L , l , h and tan θ indicate that the valley length, relief and slope increase with an increase in valleyhead altitude.
Based on the functional relations above, the shape of interfluve is a function of uplift, altitude and erosion. This model is used to illustrate the change in cross-section of interfluves during a period of sustained rock uplift.
Successive changes in shape of interfluve can be divided into two substages: (1) the early substage, characterized by trapezoidal cross-sections with the original low-relief surfaces and residual, shallow stream networks on the ridges; and (2) the later substage, characterized by a triangular cross-section, with the original low-relief surfaces removed and with the interfluves lowered by headward erosion of β-tributaries. In central Japan, the transitional relief from the trapezoidal to the triangular cross-section appears when the ridges of interfluves attain elevations about 1600–2000 m above sea level.     

长白山现代理论雪线和古雪线高度

According to the glacial landforms and deposits with the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating results, two glacial stages of the last glacial cycle (LGC) and Late Glacial were identified. The Late Glacial stage (Meteorological Station glacier advance) took place about 11 ka (11.3±1.2 ka), and the last glacial maximum (LGM), named Black Wind Mouth glacier advance, occurred at 20 ka (20.0±2.1 ka). Based on the Ohmura’s formula in which there is a relationship between summer (JJA) atmospheric temperature (T) and the annual precipitation (P) at ELA, the present theoretical equilibrium line altitude (ELA_t) in Changbai Mountains was 3380±100 m. Six methods of accumulation-area ratio (AAR), maximum elevation of lateral moraines (MELM), toe-to headwall altitude ratios (THAR), the terminal to summit altitudinal (TSAM), the altitude of cirque floor (CF), and the terminal to average elevation of the catchment area (Hofer) were used for calculation of the former ELAs in different stages. These methods provided the ELA for a range of 2250–2383 m with an average value of 2320±20 m during the LGM, which is 200 m higher than the value of previous investigation. The snowlines during the Late Glacial are 2490 m on northern slope, and 2440 m on western slope. The results show that the snowline on northern slope is 50 m higher than that on western slope during the Late Glacial, and the average snowline is 2465m. The ΔELA values were more than 1000 m during the LGM, and about 920 m lower than now during the Late Glacial stage respectively. Compared with Taiwanese and Japanese mountains in East Asia during the LGM, the effect of the uplift on ELA in Changbai Mountains during the glaciations (i.e. 20 m uplift in the LGM and 11 m in the Late Glacial) is not obvious. Foundation: National Natural Science Foundation of China, No.40571016 Author: Zhang Wei (1969–), Ph.D and Professor, specialized in Quaternary environment and climate geomorphology.     

四川螺髻山清水沟冰川槽谷演化及其影响因素

螺髻山地处青藏高原东南缘,是确切存在第四纪古冰川遗迹的典型山地之一,该区冰川地貌演化对于研究环境变化具有重要的科学意义。螺髻山东坡清水沟保存两套古冰川槽谷,分别为上槽谷和下槽谷,其中下槽谷保存完整,而上槽谷在3450~3600 m的阴坡部分出现缺失。采用野外地貌调查与模型分析相结合的方法,对冰川槽谷地貌进行分析,结果表明:清水沟槽谷的抛物线模型中,|A|值在1.3101~15.2064 之间变动,B 值变化于0.9695~3.2965 之间,且随着海拔由高到低,都存在着先变小后变大的规律,A、B值同时反映出在海拔3450~3600 m处冰川槽谷的演化不符合常态。分析认为岩性差异和河流溯源侵蚀是影响上槽谷形态的主要原因。对保存在清水沟上下槽谷内的高、低侧碛进行ESR年代测定,结果显示:高侧碛形成于58-84 ka BP左右的末次冰期早期,对应深海氧同位素4 阶段(MIS4);低侧碛形成于13-17 ka BP,属于于全球末次冰盛期晚期的产物。两次冰川作用分别塑造出两套冰川槽谷,即在末次冰期早期冰川作用形成上槽谷,末次冰期晚期形成下槽谷。     

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE MORPHOMETRY OF ALPINE AND SUBALPINE BASINS AND REMOTELY SENSED ESTIMATES OF LAKE TURBIDITY,GLACIER NATIONAL PARK,MONTANA

Relationships between characteristics of alpine and subalpine drainage basin form and estimates of lake turbidity were examined. The study was designed to provide insight into sediment removal and delivery systems in an environment where direct process studies are difficult because of logistical constraints. Remote sensing techniques were developed to assess lake turbidity levels through the acquisition of spectral responses by the Landsat Thematic Mapper. Topographic maps were interpreted to derive measurements of morphometric characteristics of 25 study basins within Glacier National Park, Montana. The morphometric variables were chosen to describe basin characteristics related to sediment removal and transport processes. Correlation analysis, principal components analysis (PCA), hierarchical clustering, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to assess characteristics of basin form and the relationship to levels of lake turbidity. A significant correlation between the first principal component, which accounted for the general morphometric character of basins, and estimated lake turbidity was discovered. The areal extent of glacial ice and total stream length within the basins were the most significant variables related to estimated levels of lake turbidity.