A note on the use of two-layer models of coastally trapped waves

Several aspects of coastally trapped wave behavior in two-layer models and in continuously stratified models are considered. A two-layer model and a uniformly stratified model are compared over a step shelf showing that, although they predict qualitatively different free-wave dispersion properties, some features of their long wave behavior are qualitatively similar. A sharp pycnocline model (a continuously stratified approximation to the two-layer model) is used to show that the presence of a vertical coastal wall (required in most two-layer models) produces substantial changes in the free-wave behavior. With a vertical coastal wall, baroclinic motions may be trapped close to the coast when the bottom there appears locally flat. Without a vertical coastal wall, such near-cost trapping apparently does not occur and the lowest mode of the sharp pycnocline model behaves more like the lowest mode of a uniformly stratified model.     

Coastal currents and eddies and their interaction with topography

The nonlinear interaction of vorticity driven coastal currents and eddies with topography is studied. The topography is either a semi-infinite escarpment perpendicular to the coast (such that topographic waves propagate toward the coast) or a semi-circular canyon or seamount attached to the coast. Assuming a piecewise constant potential vorticity distribution, the quasigeostrophic equations are solved using contour dynamics. Offshore propagating dipole eddies occur, whenever a coastal current or eddy interacts with escarpment and canyon topographies. The size and frequency at which dipoles form are found to depend on the vorticity of the current and amplitude of the topography. However, for a seamount, little eddy shedding is observed and the coastal current or eddy skirts around topography.     

Laboratory studies of the effects of interrupted, sloping topography on intermediate depth boundary currents in linearly stratified fluids

Laboratory experiments are described which provide insight into the interaction of intermediate depth boundary currents (IDBCs) with interrupted sloping topography. Specifically, they contribute to the debate over meddy formation on the Iberian continental slope. The experiments were performed in a rectilinear rotating tank filled initially with a linearly-stratified fluid. A false bottom sloped away from the side-wall along which the current flowed, and was interrupted by a gap of variable length. The effects of varying gap length and rotation rate on the boundary current were observed.In the first of two sets of experiments, the current flowed above the slope, along the vertical sidewall. In the second, the current flowed along the sloping bottom. In the former, current nose speed was consistent with geostrophic predictions, but decreased in the presence of a gap in the topography. Kelvin wave radiation is postulated as a reason for this. The IDBCs exhibited vortical lateral intrusions at values of the Burger number Bu=(N₀/Ω)² at which counterpart flat-bottom studies had been stable, implying that the sloping topography had a de-stabilising effect. Energy measurements and qualitative observations suggest the intrusions were due to mixed barotropic/baroclinic instabilities, the latter dominating at higher rotation rates.In the second configuration, four distinct flows were observed, distinguished by the deformation radius:gap width ratio R_D/G^*. For a range of values of R_D/G^*, attached eddies formed at the upstream end of the gap. They remained at this position, unlike those in similar studies of surface boundary currents (Klinger, 1993). Their persistence and ability to move downstream – salient factors for meddy – formation were greater for a finite gap size than a permanent change from sloping to flat bottom.     

包括大地形作用的大气环流模式的长时期性状

本文用一个两层斜压原始方程模式研究了包含大地形作用的大气环流模式的长时期性状.首先以刚体旋转为初值条件,用绝热无摩擦的两层斜压模式作了一个月的数值积分,研究了模式大气对纯粹地形强迫的响应.结果发现积分至第15天以后,中纬度西风渐弱,使得积分前期由地形强迫产生的槽脊难以辨认.本文通过不同模式之间的比较,对500hPa高度场上的球谐分析以及对动量方程的诊断,认为它是一种确定的动力学现象,而不是计算紊乱.在模式中引入纬向对称型加热和地面摩擦过程后,即使将模式积分长达5个月以上,由地形强迫激发的扰动所形成的槽脊仍可长久地维持,但它不是简单意义下的定常波,位相分析表明只有二波分量近似驻波,与转盘实验结果相似.     

Coastal trapped waves,with application to the northeast pacific ocean

The dispersion relation is derived for long coastal trapped waves of sub‐inertial frequency that propagate along a single‐step continental shelf in a two‐layer fluid. When the internal (Rossby) deformation radius is smaller than the shelf width, we show that the dispersion relation can be factored exactly, giving two possible modes: i. an internal Kelvin wave modified by topography;

ii. a continental shelf wave modified by the stratification.

A detailed discussion of the eigen‐functions associated with each of these modes is presented. Then the shelf wave dispersion relation is plotted for parameters applicable to the Oregon‐Washington coast. Theoretical values for the periods and wavelengths predicted from these plots are shown to agree favorably with observed values for this region.     

南太平洋辐合带季节循环及与地形和非绝热加热变化的联系

利用1981—2015年NCEP/NCAR月平均资料、NOAA的逐月CMAP（CPC（Climate Prediction Center）Merged Analysis of Precipitation）降水资料以及GODAS的月平均洋流资料和SODA的月平均风应力资料,定义了南太平洋辐合带（SPCZ）的关键区域,对南太平洋辐合带的季节变化特征及南太平洋辐合带的形成和维持原因进行了分析。结果表明,在南太平洋辐合带,4月存在由东西风切变型辐合带向东风辐合型辐合带转变的现象,而12月则存在相反的转换。在对流层低层,南太平洋辐合带区域的向上伸展高度和辐合在北半球冬季较其他季节明显高和强。引起南太平洋辐合带形成与维持的原因有2个方面:一是地形作用。由于地形的阻挡,造成等位涡线发生沿澳大利亚地形的绕行,利于澳大利亚地区反气旋性环流和南太平洋辐合带区域气旋性环流的形成与维持;同时,在地形和科里奥利力共同作用下,还易使暖海水在南太平洋辐合带区域汇聚,形成高海表温度区,从而加热大气,利于南太平洋辐合带的形成与维持。二是非绝热加热作用。南太平洋辐合带区域范围内的热源作用可以使其上方的大气受到加热,并产生加热强迫纬向梯度,驱动低层大气产生辐合。这些结果对深刻认识全球环流特别是南半球热带环流变化有重要意义。      

Effects of Land-Sea Distribution, Topography and Diurnal Change on Summer Monsoon Modeling

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太行山和山东半岛地形对冷流暴雪的影响分析

用WRF模式模拟了2005 年12 月6-7 日山东半岛一次冷流暴雪过程,通过降低太行山地形高度至10 m和抬升山东半岛地形高度至500 m的敏感性数值试验,分别分析了上游太行山和本地山东半岛地形对山东半岛冷流降雪的影响。结果表明：太行山对山东半岛冷流降雪的强度起到了加强的作用,降低太行山地形高度的敏感性试验在山东半岛北部10 m风场辐合强度较同时次控制性试验明显减弱,减弱的区域主要在山东半岛北部地区,其他区域变化不明显;同时敏感试验的流场在山东半岛的辐合也有所减弱,流线密度要疏散些。850 hPa西北风越过太行山后在背风面产生波动,波动中的气旋性小涡旋移至山东半岛后,加强了山东半岛本地的辐合强度。抬升山东半岛的地形高度后,地形的抬升辐合作用增强,故冷流降雪的强度也得到增强。     

地形影响沙尘传输的观测和模拟研究

文中基于观测资料和数值模拟方法,研究了东亚地形对中国沙尘传输的影响,结果表明:东亚地区沙尘天气多发区主要位于中国南疆盆地和内蒙古西部及蒙古南部.南疆盆地沙尘天气集中在盆地南缘;而蒙古、内蒙古西部沙尘天气主要出现在沙漠腹地.青藏高原东北侧到黄土高原中部是沙尘天气次多发区.蒙古、内蒙古西部沙漠腹地多发区的形成不仅由于这里提供了丰富的沙源,同时也具备了沙尘暴迅速增强的条件:阿尔泰-萨彦岭南侧的峡谷地形强迫形成峡谷急流,明显增强了该区域地面风速;萨彦龄山地南坡携带大量沙尘的向南下坡气流遇到东-西向的峡谷气流时受到阻挡形成聚集;同时,这一地区起伏的地表产生的地形波加强了地面起沙.这种大量沙尘在大气中聚集之后再进行传输的特征可以视为在大气中形成了沙尘"中继站".导致沙尘进一步向东输送的地形因素是阿尔泰-萨彦岭山地南侧的峡谷地形,而萨彦岭山地南坡的下坡气流和青藏高原东北侧的地形强迫绕流是导致沙尘向南输送的原因.由于青藏高原地形绕流的强大以及冷锋过程的相对频繁使得沙尘的向南输送更为强盛,这也是青藏高原东北侧沙尘天气多发区的形成原因.     

Cross-equatorial structures of equatorially trapped nonlinear Rossby waves

Analysis of the Sea Surface Height (SSH) from satellite altimeters has shown that equatorially trapped Rossby waves exhibit asymmetric cross-equatorial structures; their northern extrema are much larger in magnitude than their southern counterparts. Such asymmetry is inconsistent with the classical theory for the first baroclinic, first meridional equatorially trapped Rossby mode, which predicts that SSH and zonal velocity are symmetric in latitude and the meridional velocity is latitudinally antisymmetric (Matsuno, 1966). Chelton et al. (2003) attributed the observed asymmetry to the mean-shear-induced modifications of first meridional mode Rossby waves. The present paper examines nonlinear rectification of cross-equatorial wave structures in the presence of different zonal mean currents. Nonlinear traveling Rossby waves embedded in shears are calculated numerically in a 1.5-layer model. Nonlinearity is shown to increase the cross-equatorial asymmetry substantially making the northern extrema even more pronounced. However, nonlinearity only slightly increases the magnitude of the westward phase speed.     

大对流有效位能和条件不稳定下地形降水的三维理想数值研究

利用WRF(V3.01)中尺度数值模式,对具有大对流有效位能和条件不稳定层结下中小尺度地形对降水的影响进行了一系列三维理想数值试验,探讨了不同地形高度、尺度、形状(水平形态比)以及环境气流对降水模态和分布的影响.结果发现:在大对流有效位能(2875 J/kg)和条件不稳定(Nw≈0.01 s-1)下,地形重力波破碎触发...     

一次西南低涡形成过程的数值试验和诊断(一)——地形动力作用和潜热作用对西南低涡影响的数值试验对比分析

本文用中尺度有限区域模式对1981年7月11—14日的一次西南低涡暴雨过程进行数值试验,并讨论了地形动力作用和潜热加热对西南低涡形成的影响。 在基本试验中,较好地模拟了西南低涡的形成,其位置以及引起的降水量与实际情况比较一致。地形试验表明,地形动力作用对高原南侧的西南气流具有明显的阻挡作用,并决定着西南低涡的形成。潜热试验表明,潜热通过加强西南低涡上空高层辐散和低层辐合,使该低涡发展。     

Simulation of the Askervein flow. Part 2: Large-eddy simulations

Large-eddy simulations of the neutrally stratified flow over the Askervein Hill were performed, to improve the knowledge of the flow obtained from field measurements and numerical simulations with Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) methods. A Lagrangian dynamic subgrid model was used but, to avoid the underdissipative character near the ground, it was merged with a damped Smagorinsky model. Simulations of a flat boundary-layer flow with this subgrid model showed that the turbulent vertical motions and shear stress were better resolved using grids with a stream to spanwise aspect ratio Δx / Δy = 2 than with an aspect ratio Δx / Δy = 1. Regarding the flow over the Askervein Hill, it was found that large-eddy simulations provide an acceptable solution for the mean-velocity field and better predictions of the turbulent kinetic energy in the upstream side of the hill than the model. However, as with the model, grid convergence was not achieved in the lee side and the size of the zone with reversed flow increased with the grid refinement. Nevertheless, the existence of the intermittent separation predicted with unsteady RANS in part one of this work seems unquestionable, due to the deceleration of the flow. In our opinion, a better modelling of the decelerating boundary layer in the lee side is required to improve the results obtained using equilibrium assumptions and achieve grid convergence.     

Equilibrium states of planetary waves forced by topography and perturbation heating and blocking situation

By using a two-level, highly truncated spectral model,the equilibrium states of ultra-long waves induced by topographic and thermal forcing are obtained, and the instabilities of the states are studied. It is found that there exist some stable equilibrium states possessing typical characteristics of blocking situation. Some inferences about the dynamic mechanism of blocking phenomenon are deduced since the solutions are analytically obtained.     

不同扰动方法集合离散度演变的异同性暨地形扰动初探

基于北京“7.21”特大暴雨个例,设计了一种考虑地形不确定性对降水影响的集合预报方案,在对该方案进行初步评估的基础上,重点通过计算相关系数、扰动总能量和尺度分解,对包括地形扰动方案在内的4种集合预报方案（初值、多物理、地形、初值-多物理混合）中离散度演变的异同性进行了分析。结果表明：（1）考虑模式地形不确定性的扰动方案,在不影响集合平均降水预报质量的基础上,对集合降水预报的离散度和概率预报略有正贡献。（2）离散度空间结构的演变与天气形势的演变密切相关。不同扰动方案产生的离散度在初始时刻的空间分布各不相同,但随模式向前积分其离散度的相似度快速增大,其中0-6 h内增长速度最快,离散度场之间的相关系数可以超过0.6。混合方案与单一扰动方案相比,对离散度空间结构的贡献不大。（3）虽然不同方案的离散度空间结构相似,但其幅度却存在明显的差异,如地形扰动方案的离散度幅度明显小于初值扰动和物理过程扰动方案。混合方案可以增加原单一扰动方案的离散度振幅,但这种增加在高层明显,而在近地面层并不明显,因而增加降水和其他近地面大气变量的离散度要比增加上层大气变量的离散度更困难。（4）尺度分离的结果表明,随着空间尺度的增大和积分时间的延长,不同扰动方法产生的离散度结构会逐渐变得相似,但在积分早期（<12 h）和较小的空间尺度（<448 km）上离散度结构的差异仍明显,并且在较小的空间尺度（<448 km）上,不同扰动方法产生的离散度幅度有明显的差异。所以对于小空间尺度系统或甚短期预报,选择扰动方案比大尺度和较长期的预报更重要。以上研究可为集合预报如何合理采用不同扰动方案或不同方案的组合提供科学依据。     

Seasonal rotation features of wind vectors and application to evaluate monsoon simulations in AMIP models

A new concept, the directed angle, is introduced to study seasonal rotation regimes of global wind vectors and annual variability of monsoon. Compared with previous studies on using angles between wind vectors, this concept better describes the daily variations of both rotation direction and rotation amplitude of wind vector. According to the concept, six categories of wind vector rotation with seasonal cycle in the global have been detected and classified as follows: (1) Clockwise to counter-clockwise (CTCC) rotation; (2) Counter-clockwise to clockwise (CCTC) rotation; (3) Full clockwise (FC) rotation; (4) Full counter-clockwise (FCC) rotation; (5) Stable style; (6) Unstable style. Generally, wind vectors in monsoon regions rotate in forms of the first four styles. Moreover, the rotation direction and rotation amplitude of wind vectors have regional differences, and different monsoon subsystems possess different rotation styles for wind vectors in an annual cycle. For instance, the South Asian monsoon follows the CCTC rotation, while the East Asian monsoon follows the FCC rotation. The CTCC rotation is seen in the South China Sea. Both the West Africa and the South Indo-China Peninsula are covered by the FC rotation. Therefore, the directed angle is able to describe the evolution of wind vectors on a daily scale, which provides a new clue for spatio-temporal information about wind vector variation and model evaluation. Using the new concept, this study aims at evaluating the model outputs of eight AGCMs of AMIP in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). Compared to the corresponding observations, most models are able to simulate the global rotation regimes of wind vectors reasonably well, however very little skill is shown in the monsoon rotation styles of some models, especially in the South China Sea and West Africa. Moreover, the simulations differ mostly from observations during the transitional season. This paper is a contribution to the AMIP-CMIP Diagnostic Sub-project on General Circulation Model Simulation of the East Asian Climate, coordinated by W.-C. Wang. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Influence of Topography and Large-scale Forcing on the Occurrence of Katabatic Flow Jumps in Antarctica： Idealized Simulations

The Regional Atmospheric Modeling System （RAMS）, which is a non-hydrostatic numerical model, has been used to investigate the impact of terrain shape and large-scale forcing on the Antarctic surface-wind regime, focusing on their roles in establishing favorable flow conditions for the formation of katabatic flow jumps. A series of quasi-2D numerical simulations were conducted over idealized slopes representing the slopes of Antarctica during austral winter conditions. Results indicate that the steepness and variations of the underlying slope play a role in the evolution of near-surface flows and thus the formation of katabatic flow jumps. However, large-scale forcing has a more noticeable effect on the occurrence of this small-scale phenomenon by establishing essential upstream and downstream flow conditions, including the upstream supercritical flow, the less stably stratified or unstable layer above the cold katabatic layer, as well as the cold-air pool located near the foot of the slope through an interaction with the underlying topography. Thus, the areas with steep and abrupt change in slopes, e.g. near the coastal areas of the eastern Antarctic, are preferred locations for the occurrence of katabatic flow jumps, especially under supporting synoptic conditions.     

Observations and operational model simulations reveal the impact of Hurricane Matthew (2016) on the Gulf Stream and coastal sea level

In October 7–9, 2016, Hurricane Matthew moved along the southeastern coast of the U.S., causing major flooding and significant damage, even to locations farther north well away from the storm’s winds. Various observations, such as tide gauge data, cable measurements of the Florida Current (FC) transport, satellite altimeter data and high-frequency radar data, were analyzed to evaluate the impact of the storm. The data show a dramatic decline in the FC flow and increased coastal sea level along the U.S. coast. Weakening of the Gulf Stream (GS) downstream from the storm’s area contributed to high coastal sea levels farther north. Analyses of simulations of an operational hurricane-ocean coupled model reveal the disruption that the hurricane caused to the GS flow, including a decline in transport of ∼20 Sv (1 Sv = 10⁶ m³ s⁻¹). In comparison, the observed FC reached a maximum transport of ∼40 Sv before the storm on September 10 and a minimum of ∼20 Sv after the storm on October 12. The hurricane impacts both the geostrophic part of the GS and the wind-driven currents, generating inertial oscillations with velocities of up to ±1 m s⁻¹. Analysis of the observed FC transport since 1982 indicated that the magnitude of the current weakening in October 2016 was quite rare (outside 3 standard deviations from the mean). Such a large FC weakening in the past occurred more often in October and November, but is extremely rare in June-August. Similar impacts on the FC from past tropical storms and hurricanes suggest that storms may contribute to seasonal and interannual variations in the FC. The results also demonstrated the extended range of coastal impacts that remote storms can cause through their influence on ocean currents.