Geology and eruptive history of Unzen volcano, Shimabara Peninsula, Kyushu, SW Japan

During the past 500 thousand years, Unzen volcano, an active composite volcano in the Southwest Japan Arc, has erupted lavas and pyroclastic materials of andesite to dacite composition and has developed a volcanotectonic graben. The volcano can be divided into the Older and the Younger Unzen volcanoes. The exposed rocks of the Older Unzen volcano are composed of thick lava flows and pyroclastic deposits dated around 200–300 ka. Drill cores recovered from the basal part of the Older Unzen volcano are dated at 400–500 ka. The volcanic rocks of the Older Unzen exceed 120 km³ in volume. The Younger Unzen volcano is composed of lava domes and pyroclastic deposits, mostly younger than 100 ka. This younger volcanic edifice comprises Nodake, Myokendake, Fugendake, and Mayuyama volcanoes. Nodake, Myokendake and Fugendake volcanoes are 100–70 ka, 30–20 ka, and <20 ka, respectively. Mayuyama volcano formed huge lava domes on the eastern flank of the Unzen composite volcano about 4000 years ago. Total eruptive volume of the Younger Unzen volcano is about 8 km³, and the eruptive production rate is one order of magnitude smaller than that of the Older Unzen volcano.     

Origin and stratigraphy of phreatomagmatic deposits at the Pleistocene Sinker Butte Volcano, Western Snake River Plain, Idaho

Sinker Butte is the erosional remnant of a very large basaltic tuff cone of middle Pleistocene age located at the southern edge of the western Snake River Plain. Phreatomagmatic tephras are exposed in complete sections up to 100 m thick in the walls of the Snake River Canyon, creating an unusual opportunity to study the deposits produced by this volcano through its entire sequence of explosive eruptions. The main objectives of the study were to determine the overall evolution of the Sinker Butte volcano while focusing particularly on the tephras produced by its phreatomagmatic eruptions. Toward this end, twenty-three detailed stratigraphic sections ranging from 20 to 100 m thick were examined and measured in canyon walls exposing tephras deposited around 180° of the circumference of the volcano.Three main rock units are recognized in canyon walls at Sinker Butte: a lower sequence composed of numerous thin basaltic lava flows, an intermediate sequence of phreatomagmatic tephras, and a capping sequence of welded basaltic spatter and more lava flows. We subdivide the phreatomagmatic deposits into two main parts, a series of reworked, mostly subaqueously deposited tephras and a more voluminous sequence of overlying subaerial surge and fall deposits. Most of the reworked deposits are gray in color and exhibit features such as channel scour and fill, planar-stratification, high and low angle cross-stratification, trough cross-stratification, and Bouma-turbidite sequences consistent with their being deposited in shallow standing water or in braided streams. The overlying subaerial deposits are commonly brown or orange in color due to palagonitization. They display a wide variety of bedding types and sedimentary structures consistent with deposition by base surges, wet to dry pyroclastic fall events, and water saturated debris flows.Proximal sections through the subaerial tephras exhibit large regressive cross-strata, planar bedding, and bomb sags suggesting deposition by wet base surges and tephra fallout. Medial and distal deposits consist of a thick sequence of well-bedded tephras; however, the cross-stratified base-surge deposits are thinner and interbedded within the fallout deposits. The average wavelength and amplitude of the cross strata continue to decrease with distance from the vent. These bedded surge and fall deposits grade upward into dominantly fall deposits containing 75–95% juvenile vesiculated clasts and localized layers of welded spatter, indicating a greatly reduced water-melt ratio. Overlying these “dryer” deposits are massive tuff breccias that were probably deposited as water saturated debris flows (lahars). The first appearance of rounded river gravels in these massive tuff breccias indicates downward coring of the diatreme and entrainment of country rock from lower in the stratigraphic section. The “wetter” nature of these deposits suggests a renewed source of external water. The massive deposits grade upward into wet fallout tephras and the phreatomagmatic sequence ends with a dry scoria fall deposit overlain by welded spatter and lava flows.Field observations and two new ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar incremental heating dates suggest the succession of lavas and tephra deposits exposed in this part of the Snake River canyon may all have been erupted from a closely related complex of vents at Sinker Butte. We propose that initial eruptions of lava flows built a small shield edifice that dammed or disrupted the flow of the ancestral Snake River. The shift from effusive to explosive eruptions occurred when the surface water or rising ground water gained access to the vent. As the river cut a new channel around the lava dam, water levels dropped and the volcano returned to an effusive style of eruption.     

Crustal heat transfer in the Taupo Volcanic Zone (New Zealand): comparison with other volcanic arcs and explanatory heat source models

The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is a 200-km-long volcanic arc segment which developed ≤2 Ma ago within the continental crust of the North Island of New Zealand and lies at the southern end of the much larger Tonga-Kermadec arc system. The total crustal heat transfer of the TVZ is at present c. 2600 MW/100 km, most of the heat being transferred by convective geothermal systems. The rate of transfer is anomalously high in comparison to that of other active arcs, and arguably the highest world wide for such a setting. Heat transfer of other active arcs appear to vary almost linearly with subduction speed (about 150 MW/100 km for 10 mm/yr). The mass rate of common type arc extrusions (basalts, andesites, dacites) also increases almost linearly with subduction speed. This allows separation of the TVZ heat transfer into a “normal” component, associated with extrusions and intrusions of andesites and dacites (about 600 MW/100 km), and an “anomalous” component of about 2000 MW/100 km, related to extrusions and intrusions of rhyolitic melts whose generation is not directly controlled by subduction processes.Rhyolitic melts in the TVZ are partial melts of dominantly crustal origin. Comparison with other arcs indicates that the long-term extrusion rate of TVZ rhyolites (about 400 kg/s per 100 km) is also the highest world wide for this setting. The occurrence of voluminous Quaternary rhyolitic pyroclastics is a rare phenomenon and appears to be associated with a few arc segments (TVZ, Sumatra, Kyushu) that undergo significant crustal deformation.Various models have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of the anomalously high heat transfer within the TVZ. Models which require only heat transfer from plumes and subcrustal melts, either ponded at the crust/mantle boundary or intruding a spreading crust, are not suitable because the associated heat transfer at the contact is too low by a factor 2 to explain the required transfer rate of about 0.8 W/m² representing the “anomalous” crustal heat component of the TVZ. Heat generation by focussed plastic deformation within the ductile lithosphere is an alternative mechanism to explain “endogenous crustal heating” which yields heating rates that are also too low by a factor of two, although important parameters (average yield strength of lithosphere and opening rate of the TVZ) are not well known. A further search for a suitable combination of heat source models is required.     

A magnetic model for deep plutonic bodies beneath the central Taupo Volcanic Zone, North Island, New Zealand

The central Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is a region of intense Quaternary rhyolitic volcanism and geothermal activity in the North Island of New Zealand from which about 14,000 km³ of pyroclastics and lavas have been erupted during the last 1.6 Ma. Analysis of aeromagnetic surveys over the TVZ showed the presence of long-wavelength (10 to 25 km) magnetic anomalies which roughly follow the trend of the currently active eastern TVZ, from the north of Lake Taupo to the east of Lake Rotorua. An interpretation of the long-wavelength magnetic anomalies using 3-D magnetic modelling suggests that these anomalies are caused by the magnetic effects of < 3 km thick sequence of volcanic rocks and deeper magnetised bodies within the non-magnetic upper crust (4–7 km depth) beneath the young (age < 0.7 Ma), currently active eastern TVZ. The deep magnetised bodies are interpreted as solidified rhyolitic sub-volcanic plutons that have cooled down to below their Curie temperature.Although the existence of plutonic bodies beneath the TVZ has been postulated prior to this study, this magnetic interpretation result appears to be the first geophysical model of such bodies.     

Evolution of a Quaternary peralkaline volcano: Mayor Island, New Zealand

Mayor Island is a Holocene pantelleritic volcano showing a wide range of dispersive power and eruptive intensity despite a very limited range in magma composition of only 2% SiO₂. The primary controls on this range appear to have been the magmatic gas content on eruption and a varying involvement of basaltic magma, rather than major-element chemistry of the rhyolites. The ca. 130 ka subaerial history of the volcano contains portions of three geochemical cycles with abrupt changes in trace-element chemistry following episodes of caldera collapse. The uniform major-element chemistry of the magma may relate to a fine balance between rates of eruption and supply and the higher density of the more evolved (Ferich) magmas which could be tapped only after caldera-forming events had removed significant volumes of less evolved but lighter magma.     

The Taurewa Eruptive Episode: evidence for climactic eruptions at Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand

 The ca. 10,500 years B.P. eruptions at Ruapehu volcano deposited 0.2–0.3 km³ of tephra on the flanks of Ruapehu and the surrounding ring plain and generated the only known pyroclastic flows from this volcano in the late Quaternary. Evidence of the eruptions is recorded in the stratigraphy of the volcanic ring plain and cone, where pyroclastic flow deposits and several lithologically similar tephra deposits are identified. These deposits are grouped into the newly defined Taurewa Formation and two members, Okupata Member (tephra-fall deposits) and Pourahu Member (pyroclastic flow deposits). These eruptions identify a brief (<ca. 2000-year) but explosive period of volcanism at Ruapehu, which we define as the Taurewa Eruptive Episode. This Episode represents the largest event within Ruapehu's ca. 22,500-year eruptive history and also marks its culmination in activity ca. 10,000 years B.P. Following this episode, Ruapehu volcano entered a ca. 8000-year period of relative quiescence. We propose that the episode began with the eruption of small-volume pyroclastic flows triggered by a magma-mingling event. Flows from this event travelled down valleys east and west of Ruapehu onto the upper volcanic ring plain, where their distal remnants are preserved. The genesis of these deposits is inferred from the remanent magnetisation of pumice and lithic clasts. We envisage contemporaneous eruption and emplacement of distal pumice-rich tephras and proximal welded tuff deposits. The potential for generation of pyroclastic flows during plinian eruptions at Ruapehu has not been previously considered in hazard assessments at this volcano. Recognition of these events in the volcanological record is thus an important new factor in future risk assessments and mitigation of volcanic risk at Tongariro Volcanic Centre. Received: 5 July 1998 / Accepted: 12 March 1999     

A multi‐geochronological study of the Hakusan volcano,central Japan

The Hakusan volcano, central Japan, is located in a region where two subducting plates (the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate) overlap near the junction of four plates adjacent to the Japanese Islands (the Pacific Plate, the Philippine Sea Plate, the Eurasia Plate, and the North American Plate). The Hakusan volcano consists of products from four major volcanic episodes: Kagamuro, Ko‐hakusan, and Shin‐Hakusan I and II. To date the eruption events of the Hakusan volcano we applied thermoluminescence and fission track methods. ²³⁸U(²³⁴U)–²³⁰Th disequilibrium and ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U methods were applied to date the zircon crystallization ages for estimating the magma residence time before the eruptions. The eruption ages we obtained are ca 250 ka for Kagamuro, ca 100 ka and ca 60 ka for Ko‐Hakusan, ca 50 ka for Shin‐Hakusan I, and <10 ka for Shin‐Hakusan II. They are concordant with previous reports based on K–Ar dating. Some of the pyroclastic rocks, possibly originating from Shin‐Hakusan II activities, are dated to be ca 36 ka or 50 ka, and belong to the Shin‐Hakusan I activity. The zircon crystallization ages show several clusters prior to eruption. The magma residence time was estimated for each volcanic activity by comparing the major crystallization events and eruption ages, and we found a gradual decrease from ca. 500 ky for the Kagamuro activity to ca. 5 ky for the Shin‐Hakusan II activity. This decrease in residence time may be responsible for the decrease in volume of erupted material estimated from the current topography of the region. The scale of volcanic activity, which was deduced from the number of crystallized zircons, is more or less constant throughout the Hakusan volcanic activity. Therefore, the decrease in magma residence time is most likely the result of stress field change.     

Distal record of multi-sourced tephra in Onepoto Basin,Auckland, New Zealand: implications for volcanic chronology,frequency and hazards

We have documented 80 tephra beds dating from ca. 9.5 to >50 ka, contained within continuously deposited palaeolake sediments from Onepoto Basin, a volcanic explosion crater in Auckland, New Zealand. The known sources for distal (>190 km from vent) tephra include the rhyolitic Taupo Volcanic Centre (4) and Okataina Volcanic Centre (14), and the andesitic Taranaki volcano (40) and Tongariro Volcanic Centre (3). The record provides evidence for four new events between ca. 50 and 28 ka (Mangaone Subgroup) suggesting Okataina was more active than previously known. The tephra record also greatly extends the known northern dispersal of other Mangaone Subgroup tephra. Ten rhyolitic tephra pre-date the Rotoehu eruption (>ca. 50 ka), and some are chemically dissimilar to post-50 ka rhyolites. Some of these older tephra were produced by large-magnitude events; however, their source remains uncertain. Eight tephra from the local basaltic Auckland Volcanic Field (AVF) are also identified. Interpolation of sedimentation rates allow us to estimate the timing of 12 major explosive eruptions from Taranaki volcano in the 27.5-9.5-ka period. In addition, 28 older events are recognised. The tephra are trachytic to rhyolitic in composition. All have high K₂O contents (>3 wt%), and there are no temporal trends. This contrasts with the proximal lava record that shows a trend of increasing K₂O with time. By combining the Onepoto tephra record with that of the previously documented Pukaki crater, 15 AVF basaltic fall events are constrained at: 34.6, 30.9, 29.6, 29.6, 25.7, 25.2, 24.2, 23.8, 19.4, 19.4, 15.8 and 14.5 ka, and three pre-50 ka events. This provides some of the best age constraints for the AVF, and the only reliable data for hazard recurrence calculations. The minimum event frequency of both distal and local fall events can be estimated, and demonstrates the Auckland City region is frequently impacted by ash fall from many volcanoes.     

An ignimbrite veneer deposit: The trail-marker of a pyroclastic flow

The term “ignimbrite veneer deposit” (IVD) is proposed for a new kind of pyroclastic deposit which is found associated with, and passes laterally into, Taupo ignimbrite of valley pond type in New Zealand. It forms a thin layer mantling the landscape over 15,000 km², and is regarded as the deposit from the trailing “tail” of a pyroclastic flow, where a relaxation of shear stress favoured the deposition of the basal part of the flow. The IVD differs little in grain-size from the associated ignimbrite, but it shows a crude internal stratification attributed to the deposition of a succession of layers, one after the passage of each pulse of the pyroclastic flow. It locally contains laterally-discontinuous lenses of coarse pumice (“lee-side lenses”) on the far-vent side of topographic obstacles. In nearvent exposures the Taupo IVD shows lensoid and cross-stratified bed-forms even where it stands on a planar surface, attributed to deposition from a flow travelling at an exceedingly high velocity.An IVD can be distinguished from a poorly sorted pyroclastic fall deposit because the beds in it show more rapid lateral variations in thickness, it may show a low-angle cross-stratification, and it contains carbonised wood from trees not in the position of growth; from the deposit of a wet base surge because it lacks vesicles and strong antidune-like structures and contains carbonised vegetation, and from a hot and dry pyroclastic surge deposit because it possesses a high content of pumice and “fines”.The significance of an IVD is that it records the passage of a pyroclastic flow, where the flow itself has moved farther on.     

Correlation of rhyolitic pyroclastic eruptive units from the Taupo volcanic zone by Fe–Ti oxide compositional data

Grain-specific analyses of Fe–Ti oxides and estimates of eruption temperature (T) and oxygen fugacity (fO₂) have been used to fingerprint rhyolitic fall and flow deposits that are important for tephrostratigraphic studies in and around the Taupo volcanic zone of North Island, New Zealand. The analysed Fe–Ti oxides commonly occur in the rims of orthopyroxene crystals and appear to reflect equilibrium immediately prior to eruption because of geochemical correlation with the co-existing glass phase. The composition of the spinel phase is particularly diagnostic of eruptive centre for post-65 ka events and can be used to distinguish many tephra beds from the same volcano. The 29 different units examined were erupted over a wide range in T (690–990°C) and Δ log fO₂ (–0.1 to 2.0). These parameters are closely related to the mafic mineral assemblage, with hydrous mineral-bearing units displaying higher fO₂. Such trends are superimposed on larger differences in fO₂ that are related to eruptive centre. At any given temperature, all post-65 ka Okataina centre tephra have higher fO₂ values than post-65 ka Taupo centre tephra. This provides a useful criterion for identifying the volcanic source. There are no temporal T and fO₂ trends in the tephra record; over intervals >20 ka, however, tephra sequences from Taupo centre form characteristic T-fO₂ buffer trends mirroring the glass chemistry. Individual eruptive events display uniform spinel and rhombohedral phase compositions and thus narrow ranges in T (± <20°C) and log fO₂ (± <0.5), allowing these features to identify individual magma batches. These criteria can help distinguish tephra deposits of similar bulk or glass composition that originated from the same volcano. Distal fall deposits record the same T-fO₂ conditions as the proximal ignimbrite and enable distal–proximal correlation. Lateral and vertical compositional and T-fO₂ variability displayed in large volume (>100 km³) ignimbrites, such as the Oruanui, Rotoiti and Ongatiti, is similar to that found in a single pumice clast and thus mainly reflects analytical error; however, thermal gradients of ca. 50°C may occur in some units. Received: 6 April 1998 / Accepted: 16 June 1998     

Geochemical approach to magmatic evolution of Mt. Erciyes stratovolcano Central Anatolia, Turkey

Erciyes stratovolcano, culminating at 3917 m, is located in the Cappadocian region of central Anatolia. During its evolution, this Quaternary volcano produced pyroclastic deposits and lava flows. The great majority of these products are calc-alkaline in character and they constitute Kocdag and Erciyes sequences by repeated activities. Alkaline activity is mainly observed in the first stages of Kocdag and approximately first-middle stages of Erciyes sequences. Generally, Kocdag and Erciyes stages terminate by pyroclastic activities. The composition of lavas ranges from basalt to rhyolite (48.4–70.5 wt.% SiO₂). Calc-alkaline rocks are represented mostly by andesites and dacites. Some compositional differences between alkaline basaltic, basaltic and andesitic rocks were found; while the composition of dacites remain unchanged. All these volcanics are generally enriched in LIL and HFS elements relative to the orogenic values except Rb, Ba, Nb depleted alkaline basalt. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd isotopic composition of the volcanics range between 0.703344–0.703964, 0.512920–0.512780 for alkaline basalts and change between 0.704322–0.705088, 0.512731–0.512630 for alkaline basaltic rocks whereas calc-alkaline rocks have relatively high Sr and Nd isotopic ratios (0.703434–0.705468, 0.512942–0.512600). Low Rb, Ba, Nb content with high Zr/Nb, low Ba/Nb, La/Yb ratio and low Sr isotopic composition suggest an depleted source component, while high Ba, Rb, Nb content with high La/Yb, Ba/Nb, low Zr/Nb and low ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios indicate an OIB-like mantle source for the generation of Erciyes alkaline magma. These elemental and ratio variations also indicate that the different mantle sources have undergone different degree of partial melting episodes. The depletion in Ba, Rb, Nb content may be explained by the removal of these elements from the source by slab-derived fluids which were released from pre-collisional subduction, modified the asthenospheric mantle. The chemically different mantle sources interacted with crustal materials to produce calc-alkaline magma. The Ba/Nb increase of calc-alkaline samples indicates the increasing input of crustal components to Erciyes volcanics. Sr and Nd isotopic compositions and elevated LIL and HFS element content imply that calc-alkaline magma may be derived from mixing of an OIB-like mantle melts with a subduction-modified asthenospheric mantle and involvement of crustal materials in intraplate environments.     

Explosive silicic volcanism in Iceland and the Jan Mayen area during the last 6 Ma: sources and timing of major eruptions

Fifty-three major explosive eruptions on Iceland and Jan Mayen island were identified in 0–6-Ma-old sediments of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans by the age and the chemical composition of silicic tephra. The depositional age of the tephra was estimated using the continuous record in sediment of paleomagnetic reversals for the last 6 Ma and paleoclimatic proxies (δ¹⁸O, ice-rafted debris) for the last 1 Ma. Major element and normative compositions of glasses were used to assign the sources of the tephra to the rift and off-rift volcanic zones in Iceland, and to the Jan Mayen volcanic system. The tholeiitic central volcanoes along the Iceland rift zones were steadily active with the longest interruption in activity recorded between 4 and 4.9 Ma. They were the source of at least 26 eruptions of dominant rhyolitic magma composition, including the late Pleistocene explosive eruption of Krafla volcano of the Eastern Rift Zone at about 201 ka. The central volcanoes along the off-rift volcanic zones in Iceland were the source of at least 19 eruptions of dominant alkali rhyolitic composition, with three distinct episodes recorded at 4.6–5.3, 3.5–3.6, and 0–1.8 Ma. The longest and last episode recorded 11 Pleistocene major events including the two explosive eruptions of Tindfjallajökull volcano (Thórsmörk, ca. 54.5 ka) and Katla volcano (Sólheimar, ca. 11.9 ka) of the Southeastern Transgressive Zone. Eight major explosive eruptions from the Jan Mayen volcanic system are recorded in terms of the distinctive grain-size, mineralogy and chemistry of the tephra. The tephra contain K-rich glasses (K₂O/SiO₂>0.06) ranging from trachytic to alkali rhyolitic composition. Their normative trends (Ab–Q–Or) and their depleted concentrations of Ba, Eu and heavy-REE reflect fractional crystallisation of K-feldspar, biotite and hornblende. In contrast, their enrichment in highly incompatible and water-mobile trace elements such as Rb, Th, Nb and Ta most likely reflect crustal contamination. One late Pleistocene tephra from Jan Mayen was recorded in the marine sequence. Its age, estimated between 617 and 620 ka, and its composition support a common source with the Borga pumice formation at Sør Jan in the south of the island.     

Structural control and origin of volcanism in the Taupo volcanic zone,New Zealand

Taupor volcanic zone (TVZ) is the currently active volcanic arc and back-arc basin of the Taupo-Hikurangi arc-trench system, North Island, New Zealand. The volcanic arc is best developed at the southern (Tongariro volcanic centre) end of the TVZ, while on the eastern side of the TVZ it is represented mainly by dacite volcanoes, and in the Bay of Plenty andesite/dacite volcanoes occur on either side of the Whakatane graben. The back-arc basin is best developed in the central part of the TVZ and comprises bimodal rhyolite and high-alumina basalt volcanism. Widespread ignimbrite eruptions have occurred from this area in the past 0.6 Ma. Normal faults occur in both arc and back-arc basin. They are generally steeply dipping (>40°) and strike between 040° and 080°. In the back-arc basin, fault zones are en echelon and have the same trend as alignments of rhyolite domes and basalt vents. Open fissures have formed during historic earthquakes along some of the faults, and geodetic measurements on the north side of Lake Taupo suggest extension of 14±4 mm/year. In the Bay of Plenty and M_L=6.3 earthquake occurred on 2 March 1987. Modelling of known structure in the area together with data derived from this earthquake suggests block faulting with faults dipping 45°±10° NW and a similar dip is suggested by seismic profiling of faults offshore of the Bay of Plenty where extension is estimated to be 5±2 mm/year. To the east of the TVZ, the North Island shear belt (NISB) is a zone of reverse-dextral, strike-slip faults, the surface expression of which terminates at the eastern end of the TVZ. On the opposite side of the TVZ in the offshore western Bay of Plenty and on line with the NISB is the Mayor Island fault belt. If the two fault belts were once continuous, as seems likely, strike-slip faults probably extend through the basement of the TVZ. When extension associated with the arc and back-arc basin is combined with these strike-slip faults, the resulting transtension provides a suitable tectonic environment for caldera formation and voluminous ignimbrite eruptions in the back-arc basin. The types of volcano in the TVZ are considered to be related to the source of magma and overlying crustal structure. Lavas of the arc are probably formed by a multistage process involving (1) subsolidus slab dehydration, (2) anatexis of the mantle wedge, (3) fractionation and minor crustal assimilation and (4) magma mixing. High-alumina basalts of the back-arc basin may be derived by partial melting of peridotite at the top of the mantle wedge, while rhyolitic magmas are thought to come from partial melting of lavas and subvolcanic reservoirs associated with the southern end of the Coromandel volcanic zone. Extreme thinning associated with transtension in the back-arc basin will favour the eruption of large-volume, gas-rich ignimbrites accompanied by caldera formation.     

A multiple-parameter approach to andesitic tephra correlation, Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand

A multi-parameter approach was used to correlate andesitic tephras in a complex tephra sequence ranging in age from ca. 23 to ca. 75 ka on the eastern ring plain of Ruapehu volcano, North Island. Field properties, combined with ferromagnesian mineral assemblages and mineral compositions, were required to map and correlate this sequence. Three tephra units could be identified based on their unique physical appearance, but other tephras could not be correlated on this basis alone. Hornblende and olivine proved to be valuable marker minerals enabling further distinction of two of the marker units recognised by field properties, as well as defining two further marker tephras. Unweathered titanomagnetite crystals, present in all of the tephras, were subjected to major-element analysis by electron microprobe. Canonical discriminant function analysis (DFA) of these analyses enabled the grouping and discrimination of tephra units, further aiding the identification of defined marker units, as well as defining new marker units. The titanomagnetite chemistry showed a strong relationship to the ferromagnesian mineralogy, showing that the ferromagnesian phenocrysts formed from the same melt or under the same melt conditions prior to eruption of each tephra. Canonical DFA was also applied to hornblende and olivine mineral analyses to identify further marker beds and to confirm identifications of previously defined units. This statistical analysis was found to be invaluable in reducing the large amount of compositional data from this study into a useable form for andesitic tephra correlation and mapping.     

A gigantic Bezymianny-type event at the beginning of modern volcan Popocatepetl

The history of volcan Popocatepetl can be divided into two main periods: the formation of a large primitive volcano — approximatively 30 km wide — on which is superimposed a modern cone (6–8 km in diameter and 1700m high). A major event of Bezymianny type marks the transition between these two dissimilar periods.The activity of the primitive volcano was essentially effusive and lasted several hundred thousands of years. The total volume of products ejected by the volcano is of the order of 500–600 km³. Its last differentiated magmas are dacitic.A gigantic debris flow (D.F.) spread on the southern side is related to the Bezymianny-type event which destroyed the summit area of the ancient edifice. An elliptical caldera ( 6.5 × 11 km wide) was formed by the landslide. Its deposits, with a typical hummocky surface, cover 300 km² for a volume of 28–30 km³. Numerous outcrops belonging to this debris flow show “slabs” of more or less fractured and dislocated rocks that come from the primitive volcano. These deposits are compared to two studied debris flows of similar extent and volume: the Mount Shasta and Colima's D.F.This eruption takes a major place in the volcanologic and magmatic history of Popocatepetl: pyroclastic products of surge-type with “laminites” and crude layers, ashflows, and pumiceous airfall layers are directly related to this event and begin the history of the modern volcano probably less than 50,000 years ago. In addition, a second andesitic and dacitic phase rose both from the central vent — forming the basis of modern Popo — and from lateral vents.The terminal cone is characterized by long periods of construction by lava flows alternating with phases of destruction, the duration of these episodes being 1000 to 2000 years. The cone is composed of two edifices: the first, volcan El Fraile, began with effusive activity and was partly destroyed by three periods of intense explosive activity. The first period occurred prior to 10.000 years B.P., the second from 10.000 to 8000 years B.P. and the third from 5000 to 3800 years B.P. Each period of destruction shows cycles producing collapsing pyroclastic flows or nuées of the St Vincent-type related to the opening of large craters, plinian air-fall deposits and minor lava flows. The second edifice, the summit Popo, produced lava flows until 1200 years B.P. and since that time, entered into an explosive period. Two cataclysmic episodes, each including major pyroclastic eruptions, occurred 1200 and 900–1000 years ago. During the Pre-Hispanic and historic times effusive activity was restricted entirely to the summit area alternating with plinian eruptions. Nevertheless, despite the quiet appearance of the volcano, the last period of pyroclastic activity which started 1200 years ago may not have ended and can be very dangerous for the nearby populations.     

Geology and eruptive history of the Rabaul Caldera area, Papua New Guinea

Rabaul Caldera is the most recently active (1937–1943) of four adjoining volcanic centres aligned north-south through the northern extremity of eastern New Britain. Geological mapping after the 1983–1985 Rabaul seismic and deformation crisis has partially revealed a long and complex eruption history dominated by numerous explosive eruptions, the largest accompanied by caldera collapse. The oldest exposed eruptives are the basaltic pre-caldera cone Tovanumbatir Lavas K/Ar dated at 0.5 Ma. The dacitic Rabaul Quarry Lavas exposed in the caldera wall and K/Ar dated at 0.19 Ma, are overlain by a sequence of dacitic and andesitic pyroclastic flow and fall deposits. Uplifted coral reef limestones, interbedded within the pyroclastic sequence on the northeast coast, suggest that explosive eruptions in the Rabaul area had commenced prior to the 0.125 Ma last interglacial high sea level stand. The pyroclastic sequence includes the large Boroi Ignimbrites and Malaguna Pyroclastics both ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dated at about 0.1 Ma, and the Barge Tunnel Ignimbrite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dated at around 0.04 Ma. Few reliable ages exist for the many younger eruptives. These include Holocene ignimbrites of the latest caldera-forming eruptions—the Raluan Pyroclastics variously dated (¹⁴C) at either about 3500 or 7000 yr B.P., and the ca. 1400 yr B.P. Rabaul Pyroclastics. At least eight intracaldera eruptions have occurred since the 1400 yr B.P. collapse, building small pyroclastic and lava cones within the caldera.A major erosional episode is evident as a widespread unconformity in the upper pyroclastic stratigraphy at Rabaul. Lacking relevant radiometric ages, this episode is assumed to have occurred during last glaciation low sea levels and is here arbitarily dated at ca. ?20 ka. At least five, possibly nine, significant ignimbrite eruptions have occurred at Rabaul during the last ?20 ka. The new eruptive history differs considerably from that previously published, which considered ignimbrite eruption and caldera collapse to have first occurred at 3500 yr B.P.Rabaul volcanism has been dominated by two main types: (a) basaltic and basaltic andesite cone building eruptions; and (b) dacitic, and rarely andesitic or rhyolitic, plinian/ignimbrite eruptions of both high- and low-aspect ratio types. The 1400 yr B.P. Rabaul Ignimbrite is a type example of a low-aspect ratio, high-energy, and potentially very damaging eruption. Fine vitric ash deposits, common in the Rabaul pyroclastic sequence, demonstrate the frequent modification of eruptions by external water probably related to early caldera lakes or bays. Interbedding of these fine ashes with plinian pumice lapilli beds suggests that many early eruptions occurred from multiple vents, located in both wet and dry areas.     

Timing of volcanic, plutonic and geothermal activity at Ngatamariki, New Zealand

Four ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dates on mineral separates from fresh and hydrothermally altered volcanic and plutonic rocks from the Ngatamariki geothermal field indicate that andesitic volcanism took place in the eastern portion of the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) prior to 1.2 Ma and probably considerably earlier. These data significantly extend the onset and duration of andesitic volcanism in the east-central TVZ over previous estimates. Intrusive activity is represented at Ngatamariki by a dioritic pluton, the only such pluton yet recognized in the entire TVZ. Hornblende from the pluton yields a crystallization age of near 550 ka. Hydrothermal alteration spatially associated with the pluton produced sericite of a similar age. Overlying and postdating the most intense hydrothermal alteration zone is the Whakamaru Ignimbrite (or its equivalent) which was emplaced at 330 ka. Two distinct geothermal systems may have been active at nearly the same site from 550 ka to present. The most intense activity occurred before 330 ka and was associated with emplacement of the Ngatamariki diorite. This was followed by the less intense system that is currently active. The geothermal regime at Ngatamariki has, therefore, probably been active intermittently for at least 550 ka.     

Explosion quakes at Stromboli (Italy)

This paper reports the results of two seismic experiments aimed at determining the wave field of explosion quakes at Stromboli Island (Mediterranean Sea, Southern Italy). The typical Strombolian activity mostly consists of explosive phenomena causing pyroclastic, materials to be emitted together with jets of volcanic gases from one or more craters. Stromboli is an active volcano characterized by persistent seismic activity consisting of explosion quakes that are seismic events associated with the explosive volcanic phenomena. Explosion quakes are short lived seismic events occurring intermittently whose amplitude tends to decrease with distance from the vent. A distinctive feature of explosion quakes is the presence on seismograms of two, often clearly distinct, seismic phases. The first, low-frequency seismic phase (<2 Hz) is in fact usually followed by a high-frequency seismic phase (>3–4 Hz) after one second or more. The first seismic phase of explosion quakes has been shown to be characterized by a nearly radial linear polarization and by an apparent propagation velocity estimated at 600–800 m/s. The second phase is characterized by a more chaotic motion and a lower apparent propagation velocity of 150–450 m/s. The wavefield associated with the first low-frequency seismic phase appears to be generated by a resonating P-wave seismic source accompanying gas explosion and emission of pyroclastic materials. The wavefield associated with the second high-frequency seismic phase of explosion quakes appears to be mainly composed of scattered and converted waves due to the critical topography of the volcano.     

40Ar/39Ar constraints on the temporal evolution of Graciosa Island, Azores (Portugal)

Lava flows spanning the eruptive record of Graciosa Island (Azores archipelago) and a gabbro xenolith were dated by ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar in order to constrain the Pleistocene and Holocene volcanic evolution of the island. The results range from 1.05 Ma to 3.9 ka, whereas prior published K–Ar and ¹⁴C ages range from 620 to 2 ka. The formation of the Serra das Fontes shield volcano started at minimum 1.05 Ma, and the magmatic system was active for ca. 600 ky, as suggested by the formation of the gabbro xenolith by magmatic differentiation. Evolved magmas making up the Serra das Fontes–Serra Branca composite volcano were generated at ca. 450 ka. After a period of ca. 110 ky of volcanic inactivity and erosion of volcanic edifices, volcanism was reactivated with the formation of the Vitória Unit NW platform. Later, the development of the Vulcão Central Unit started with the formation of monogenetic cones located to the south of the Serra das Fontes–Serra Branca–Vitória Unit. This volcanism became progressively more evolved and was concentrated in a main eruptive center, forming the Vulcão Central stratovolcano with an age older than 50 ka. The caldera related to this stratovolcano is older than 47 ka and was followed by effusion of basaltic magmas into the caldera, resulting in the formation of a lava lake, which ultimately spilled over the caldera rim at ca. 11 ka. The most recent eruptions on Graciosa formed two small pyroclastic cones within the caldera and the Pico do Timão cone within the Vitória Unit at ca 3.9 ka.     

Geophysical evidence on the structure of the Taupo Volcanic Zone and its hydrothermal circulation

The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) of New Zealand is characterised by extensive volcanism and by high rates of magma production. Associated with this volcanism are numerous high-temperature (> 250 °C) geothermal systems through which the natural heat output of 4200 ± 500 MW is channelled. Outside the geothermal fields the heat flow is negligible. The average heat flux from the central 6000 km² of the TVZ, which contains most of the geothermal fields, is 700 mW/m³. This heat flux appears to be more concentrated along the eastern margin of the TVZ.Schlumberger resistivity measurements (AB/2 of 500 m and 1000 m) have identified 17 distinct geothermal fields with natural heat outputs greater than 20 MW. An additional six, low-heat-output geothermal fields also occur, and may represent formerly more active systems now in decline. Two extinct fields have also been identified. The average spacing between fields is 10–15 km. The distribution of geothermal fields does not appear to be directly associated with individual volcanic features except for the geothermal system that occurs within Lake Taupo and which occupies the vent of the 1800 yr.B.P. Taupo eruption. The positions of the geothermal fields do not appear to have varied for at least the last 200,000 years. These data are consistent with a model of large-scale convection occurring throughout the TVZ, in which the geothermal fields represent the upper portion of the rising, high-temperature, convective plumes. The majority of the recharge to the convection system is provided by the downward movement of cold meteoric water between the fields which suppresses the heat flow in these regions.Gravity measurements indicate that to a depth of about 2.5 km the upper layers of the TVZ consist of low-density pyroclastic infill. A seismic refraction interface with velocity change from 3.2 km/s to 5.5 km/s occurs at a similar depth. The cross-sectional area of the convection plumes (identified electrically) appears to increase at depths of 1–2 km, consistent with a decrease in permeability at the depth at which the velocity and density increase.The seismicity is dominated by swarm activity which accounts for about half of all earthquakes and is highly variable in both space and time. The small number of seismic events (and swarms) that have well determined depths show a cut off of seismicity at depths of 7–9 km. The depth of the transition from brittle to ductile behaviour of the rocks is identified with the transition from a regime where heat is transported by (hydrothermal) convection and pore pressures are near-hydrostatic to a regime where heat transport is dominantly conductive and pore pressures are lithostatic. Within the convective region, temperatures are moderated by the circulation of water so that the depth of the transition from convective to conductive heat transfer can be linked to the bottom of the seismogenic zone. Rocks must become ductile within about 1 km of the bottom of the overlying convective zone.Seismic refraction studies suggest that the crust beneath the TVZ is highly thinned with a seismic velocity of about 7.5 km/ s, typical of the upper mantle, occurring at depth of 15 km. Seismological studies indicate the upper mantle is highly attenuating beneath the TVZ. Conductive heat transfer between the bottom of the convective system, at about 8 km, and the base of the material with crustal velocities, at 15 km, is not able to provide all the heat that is discharged at the surface. Repeated intrusion from the mantle may provide the additional heat transport required.