地貌发育演化研究的空代时理论与方法

地貌的发育在特定的条件下往往呈现空间分布上由“新”至“老”的过渡,据此,对地貌类型与特征在空间上的序列采样,即可为研究某种地貌的个体发育提供基本依据。该方法即为地貌学研究中的空代时。本文首先介绍了空代时方法产生的背景与基本概念。分析了近年来空代时方法应用于河流地貌、构造地貌、河口海岸地貌等不同地貌类型演化过程的研究进展。在此基础上,明确了空代时方法在地貌学研究中的适用条件、影响因素及分类体系,并提出了地貌学空代时的研究范式。本文认为今后的研究工作一方面应充分利用海量的地理空间数据,运用空代时方法研究多种空间尺度下的地貌演化的问题;另一方面,应结合现有的物理机制和统计规律,构建集形、数、理一体化的地貌演化模型。     

新疆地貌数字区划

This paper presents a method of geomorphologic regionalization for Xinjiang, with the use of Srtm-DEM (resolution 90 m) and TM images for 1990 (resolution 30 m). After interpretation and classification of geomorphologic types, the present research focuses on the qualitative and quantitative distribution of different geomorphologic types based on geographical grid analysis. Then, by using system clustering analysis method, geomorphologic types are grouped into divisions. The resulting geomorphologic regionalization hierarchy of Xinjiang includes three levels, i.e., macro-landform divisions, medium-landform divisions, and micro-landform divisions, containing 6, 23 and 200 types, respectively. This method makes it possible to digitally delimit geomorphologic regions. Comparison and verification show that the spatial precision of the boundaries of geomorphologic subareas in Xinjiang is very high.     

Digital regionalization of geomorphology in Xinjiang

This paper presents a method of geomorphologic regionalization for Xinjiang, with the use of Srtm-DEM (resolution 90 m) and TM images for 1990 (resolution 30 m). After interpretation and classification of geomorphologic types, the present research focuses on the qualitative and quantitative distribution of different geomorphologic types based on geographical grid analysis. Then, by using system clustering analysis method, geomorphologic types are grouped into divisions. The resulting geomorphologic regionalization hierarchy of Xinjiang includes three levels, i.e., macro-landform divisions, medium-landform divisions, and micro-landform divisions, containing 6, 23 and 200 types, respectively. This method makes it possible to digitally delimit geomorphologic regions. Comparison and verification show that the spatial precision of the boundaries of geomorphologic subareas in Xinjiang is very high.     

Fish persistence and fluvial geomorphology in central Australia

The purposes of this paper are to document the composition and distribution of fishes in the Alice Springs region of Australia, and discuss constraints on fish persistence in this arid region. Nine native and six exotic species were recorded; most exotics no longer exist. Except in Finke River, only one or no native species were found. Fish survival in the area is ameliorated by the exceptionally broad environmental tolerances and migratory abilities of many species, but ultimately depends upon the effects of geology, geomorphology, and the vagaries in pattern of sediment transport on water persistence.     

地貌过程研究回顾与展望

地貌学是现代地理科学的一个重要分支学科。本文对中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所建所以来在地貌研究领域的主要研究成果进行了综述,包括河流地貌、黄土高原与坡地地貌、青藏高原及南极地貌与第四纪、喀斯特与旅游地貌、地貌实验与模拟、地貌制图共六个方面,对地理资源所地貌研究团队目前的研究方向进行了介绍,并就提高地理资源所地貌研究在学科发展和服务国家建设中的作用提出了建议。     

Traveltime measurements from noise correlation: stability and detection of instrumental time-shifts

We test the feasibility of using Green's functions extracted from records of ambient seismic noise to monitor temporal changes in the Earth crust properties by repeated measurements at regional distances. We use about 11 yr of continuous recordings to extract surface waves between three pairs of stations in California. The correlations are computed in a moving 1-month window and we analyse the temporal evolution of measured interstation traveltimes. The comparison of the arrival times in the positive and negative correlation time of Rayleigh and Love waves allows us to separate time-shifts associated with any form of physical change in the medium, those resulting from clock drift or other instrumental errors, and those due to change in the localization of the noise sources. This separation is based on the principle of time symmetry. When possible, we perform our analysis in two different period bands: 5–10 and 10–20 s. The results indicate that significant instrumental time errors (0.5 s) are present in the data. These time-shifts can be measured and tested by closure relation and finally corrected independently of any velocity model. The traveltime series show a periodic oscillation that we interpret as the signature of the seasonal variation of the region of origin of the seismic noise. Between 1999 and 2005, the final arrival time fluctuations have a variance of the order of 0.01 s. This allows us to measure interstation traveltimes with errors smaller than 0.3 per cent of the interstation traveltime and smaller than 1 per cent of the used wave period. This level of accuracy was not sufficient to detect clear physical variation of crustal velocity during the considered 11 yr between the three stations in California. Such changes may be more easily detectable when considering pairs of stations more closely located to each other and in the vicinity of tectonically active faults or volcanoes.     

生态地貌学研究体系及其功能提升探讨

地球表层是人类生存的家园,地表形态直接或间接影响人类生活、生产和社会经济活动。地貌学和生态学是与人类关系密切的学科。自然实体与人文实体都依附于地表,研究生态与地貌关系的科学便统称为生态地貌学,直接影响人类生存选址、生存保障、生产方向、产业布局、交通、城乡建设等,因此,生态地貌学是保障人类生存与社会经济可持续协调发展的基础性与应用性极强的学科,是国家实现生态文明战略的基础性学科。生态地貌学研究生态与地貌两者相互作用形成的生态地貌综合实体,学科体系包含地貌基础学科、生态基础学科及其相互作用形成的生态地貌学科。生态地貌学科下又包含生态地貌区划学、生态地貌类型学、生态地貌资源学、生态地貌岩态学、生态地貌遥感与GIS技术、生态地貌管理与规划等分支学科,是目前仍然属于探索性的学科。生态地貌结构可表达为：由地貌与生物成分、类型、区域组合、数量构成及其空间排列组合方式。从生态地貌结构理论出发,对其功能进行系统梳理,主要可以归纳为区域结构、类型结构、资源结构、岩态结构等多种类型。不同结构类型具有不同的功能,主要功能有提升中国自然地理区划质量与空间定位功能、生态评估与生态设计功能、土地利用评估与利用结构调整功能、地质地貌灾害成因和防灾减灾对策功能等。故该研究意在实现生态地貌功能间协调、高效可持续,通过对各功能进行整合,形成功能体系,并从调控管理上提出了提升功能能力的设计路径。     

DEM内插方法与可视性分析结果的相似性研究

以实际采样的散点数据为原始数据,利用反距离权、样条函数、克里格、自然邻点内插、TIN内插5种内插方法生成规则格网DEM,并对其可视性分析结果进行对比分析和相关分析,揭示不同内插方法对可视性分析结果的影响规律和可视性分析对内插方法的敏感程度。结果表明,可视性分析对内插方法比较敏感,不同的内插方法会得到不同的可视性分析结果,其中相关程度最强的是样条函数内插和克里格内插、自然邻点内插和TIN内插。     

试论地貌学的新进展和趋势

地貌变化有内在的规律,对环境保育、资源利用和自然灾害防治有重要影响。作为交叉学科和地理学的重要分支学科,地貌学具有重要理论价值和实际意义。过去10多年来,随着遥感、地理信息技术和沉积物定年、地球物理和地球化学探测以及数值模拟等新技术和新方法的应用,地貌学家的研究视野和深度不断扩大与加深,在构造地貌、气候地貌和人类活动与地貌过程等传统领域有很多新进展,揭示了不同地貌单元的变化规律和机理,极大地推动了地貌学的发展。在新时代,除了继续加强传统地貌单元的深入研究外,地貌学的发展应与全球环境变化和未来地球等重大科学问题(计划)紧密结合;地貌学家要关心人类活动对地貌过程的影响及适应,并利用新技术开展地貌过程的定量重建和数值模拟。同时加强地理学专业学生的地质学基础学习、发展定量地貌学和行星地貌学、系统开展人类活动对地貌过程的影响和适应研究,是提升中国地貌学水平的途径,也可为推动国际地貌学发展做出贡献。     

The value of teaching about geomorphology in non-traditional settings

Academics usually teach about geomorphology in the classroom, where the audience is enthusiastic, but generally small. Less traditional settings offer opportunities to reach a wider audience, one that is equally enthusiastic, given its love of geomorphic features in the National Parks, but one which has little knowledge of the science behind what they are seeing. I have “taught” geomorphology in four non-traditional settings: at a summer camp, a state wildlife refuge, on community field trips, and at meetings for clubs and government boards. This paper discusses my experiences and offers suggestions to others who may wish to follow this less-traveled educational path.As Head of Nature Programs at Camp Pemigewassett in New Hampshire, I have worked, over the last 33 years, with thousands of campers ranging from 8 to 15 years old. Our setting, in a glaciated valley on a small lake, exhibits a wide range of geomorphic features and offers many opportunities for direct learning through field investigations. I have found that even 8-year olds can do real science, if we avoid the jargon. Once “taught” they carry their knowledge about landforms and processes with them and eagerly share it with their friends and family on outings and trips, thus reaching an even wider public.Parks, wildlife refuges, nature preserves, and other similar areas generally have nature trails, often with educational information about the environment. Generally, interpretive signs are prepared by biologists and the content ignores the site's physical features, as well as the connections between ecological communities and the underlying geology and geomorphology. My students and I have addressed this situation at two places in Connecticut, one a state wildlife management area, also used for training teachers to teach Environmental Education, and the other, a town recreation area. We catalogued the geomorphic features, looked at relationships of the community level ecology to those features, and prepared interpretive signs that added this perspective to the trails. The public response has been extremely favorable.Geomorphology can also be taught by leading field trips for community organizations. I have done this twice, once for the Manchester (NH) Historical Society and once for a small watershed association. The attendance and interest surprised me. We finally had to limit the Manchester trip to one full busload (45) and the watershed trip, which was part of a “trails day,” drew over 90 people.Finally, I have found that organizations such as Sierra Club chapters and town conservation boards are frequently looking for speakers for their periodic meetings. Why not a geomorphologist? After all, much of what conservationists do is related to what geomorphologists do. I have given several of these presentations and the receptions have always been enthusiastic.While the work involved in preparing to teach in one of these non-traditional settings is frequently substantial, the rewards are equally large. It is a way to reach masses of people who know little about the science of geomorphology and to demonstrate its importance to them. Taking our message directly to the public in these settings is an effective way to put geomorphology in the public eye.     

Towards an integration of process measurements, archive analysis and modelling in geomorphology — the Kärkevagge experimental site, Abisko area, northern Sweden

The analysis of Holocene geomorphic process activity demands long–term data sets, which are available for the Kärkevagge catchment due to 50 years of intensive geomorphologic field studies. This data set is used in combination with additional field measurements, remote sensing and digital elevation model (DEM) analysis to provide input data for modelling Holocene valley development. On the basis of this information, geomorphic process units (GPUs) are defined by means of GIS modelling. These units represent areas of homogeneous process composition that transfer sediments. Since the data base enables the quantification of single processes, the interaction of processes within the units can also be quantified. Applying this concept permits calculation of recent sediment transfer rates and hence leads to a better understanding of actual geomorphic landscape development activity. To extrapolate these data in time and space the process–related sediments in the valley are analysed for depth and total volume, primarily using geophysical methods. In this fashion the validity of measured process rates is evaluated for the Holocene time scale. Results from this analysis are exemplified in a cross–profile showing some of the principal sediment units in the valley. For example, the measured modern rates on a slush torrent debris fan seem to represent the Holocene mean rate. This approach should also be suitable for revealing Holocene geomorphic landscape development in terms of climate change.     

Glacial erosion and geomorphology in the northwest Sierra Nevada, CA

Pleistocene glacial erosion left a strong topographic imprint in the northwestern Sierra Nevada at many scales, yet the specific landforms and the processes that created them have not been previously documented in the region. In contrast, glaciation in the southern and central Sierra was extensively studied and by the end of the 19th century was among the best understood examples of alpine glaciation outside of the European Alps. This study describes glacially eroded features in the northwest Sierra and presents inferred linkages between erosional forms and Pleistocene glacial processes. Many relationships corroborate theoretical geomorphic principles. These include the occurrence of whalebacks in deep ice positions, roches moutonnées under thin ice, and occurrence of P-forms in low topographic positions where high subglacial meltwater pressures were likely. Some of the landforms described here have not previously been noted in the Sierra, including a large crag and tail eroded by shallow ice and erosional benches high on valley walls thought to be cut by ice-marginal channels.     

Towards an integration of process measurements, archive analysis and modelling in geomorphology — the Kärkevagge experimental site, Abisko area, northern Sweden

The analysis of Holocene geomorphic process activity demands long–term data sets, which are available for the Kärkevagge catchment due to 50 years of intensive geomorphologic field studies. This data set is used in combination with additional field measurements, remote sensing and digital elevation model (DEM) analysis to provide input data for modelling Holocene valley development. On the basis of this information, geomorphic process units (GPUs) are defined by means of GIS modelling. These units represent areas of homogeneous process composition that transfer sediments. Since the data base enables the quantification of single processes, the interaction of processes within the units can also be quantified. Applying this concept permits calculation of recent sediment transfer rates and hence leads to a better understanding of actual geomorphic landscape development activity. To extrapolate these data in time and space the process–related sediments in the valley are analysed for depth and total volume, primarily using geophysical methods. In this fashion the validity of measured process rates is evaluated for the Holocene time scale. Results from this analysis are exemplified in a cross–profile showing some of the principal sediment units in the valley. For example, the measured modern rates on a slush torrent debris fan seem to represent the Holocene mean rate. This approach should also be suitable for revealing Holocene geomorphic landscape development in terms of climate change.     

Applicative limitations of sediment transport on predictive modeling in geomorphology

Sources of uncertainty or error that arise in attempting to scale up the results of laboratory-scale sediment transport studies for predictive modeling of geomorphic systems include: (i) model imperfection, (ii) omission of important processes, (iii) lack of knowledge of initial conditions, (iv) sensitivity to initial conditions, (v) unresolved heterogeneity, (vi) occurrence of external forcing, and (vii) inapplicability of the factor of safety concept. Sources of uncertainty that are unimportant or that can be controlled at small scales and over short time scales become important in large-scale applications and over long time scales. Control and repeatability, hallmarks of laboratory-scale experiments, are usually lacking at the large scales characteristic of geomorphology. Heterogeneity is an important concomitant of size, and tends to make large systems unique. Uniqueness implies that prediction cannot be based upon first-principles quantitative modeling alone, but must be a function of system history as well. Periodic data collection, feedback, and model updating are essential where site-specific prediction is required.     

Research and perspectives on geomorphology in China: Four decades in retrospect

Geomorphology is one of the main subdisciplines of geography. The research achievements and prospects in geomorphology have received considerable attention for a long time. In this paper, a general retrospect of geomorphologic research in China over the past 60 years was firstly addressed, especially the research progress during the last 40 years. Based on a summary of experience and a tendency of development, perspectives of geomorphologic research direction in the future were provided. It is concluded that the discipline of geomorphology has made great progress in the aspects of geomorphologic types, regionalization, as well as their subdisciplines such as dynamic geomorphology, tectonic geomorphology, climatic geomorphology, lithological geomorphology, palaeogeomorphology. We believe that persisting in the unity principle between morphological and genetic types would be conductive for the development of traditional landforms and integrated landforms. In addition, five perspectives aim to enhance China’s geomorphologicl research capacity were proposed. They are: (1) strengthening the research of basic geomorphologic theory and the research of integrated geomorphology to expand the research space; (2) focusing more on the research of geomorphologic structure and geomorphologic function to improve the application ability of geomorphology; (3) constructing a comprehensive resource, environmental, and geomorphologic information system and building a sharing platform to upgrade the intelligent information industry of geomorphology; (4) putting more efforts on the research of coastal geomorphology and marine geomorphology to assist the transformation of China from a maritime country to an ocean power; and (5) cultivating talents and constructing research teams to maintain a sustainable development of China’s geomorphologic research.     

北京大学地貌第四纪学科的创建与发展

1952年全国高校院系调整后,新建的北京大学地质地理系开始了地貌与第四纪方面的教学和研究,标志着北大地貌第四纪学科的建立。65年来,在新构造活动与构造地貌、气候地貌与沉积、流水地貌与沉积、沉积相与比较沉积学、遥感与地理信息系统、第四纪地层与年代学、第四纪气候与环境变迁、海洋地球化学过程与环境演变、环境考古与古代人地关系研究等方面取得了丰硕成果,在一些领域发挥了创新与引领作用,解决了一系列国家建设中面临的问题,为中国地貌第四纪科学的发展做出了重要贡献。在地理学多元化发展的新形势下,北大地貌第四纪学科发展与科学研究将以地球系统科学的视角,加强地貌学与自然地理学各分支以及地球科学其他领域的交叉与融合,深化不同宏观时空尺度演化与现代过程关联的研究、以及影响地貌演化的地球系统各要素及相互作用研究,系统展开气候变化、环境演变与地貌过程的模拟研究,加强地貌第四纪理论研究和新技术新方法的发展与应用,推动中国地貌第四纪科学向更高水平发展。     

Extreme sensitivity of crosshole electrical resistivity tomography measurements to geometric errors

The effects of geometric errors on crosshole resistivity data are investigated using analytical methods. Geometric errors are systematic and can occur due to uncertainties in the individual electrode positions, the vertical spacing between electrodes in the same borehole, or the vertical offset between electrodes in opposite boreholes. An estimate of the sensitivity to geometric error is calculated for each of two generic types of four-electrode crosshole configuration: current flow and potential difference crosshole (XH) and in-hole (IH). It is found that XH configurations are not particularly sensitive to geometric error unless the boreholes are closely spaced on the scale of the vertical separation of the current and potential electrodes. However, extremely sensitive IH configurations are shown to exist for any borehole separation. Therefore, it is recommended that XH configurations be used in preference to IH schemes. The effects of geometric error are demonstrated using real XH data from a closely spaced line of boreholes designed to monitor bioremediation of chlorinated solvents at an industrial site. A small fraction of the data had physically unrealistic apparent resistivities, which were either negative or unexpectedly large. However by filtering out configurations with high sensitivities to geometric error, all of the suspect data were removed. This filtering also significantly improved the convergence between the predicted and the measured resistivities when the data were inverted. In addition to systematic geometric errors, the measured data also exhibit a high level of random noise. Despite this, the resulting inverted images correspond reasonably closely with the known geology and nearby cone penetrometer resistivity profiles.     

中国近40年来地貌学研究的回顾与展望

地貌学是地理学的一门主要分支学科,其研究成就与发展一直倍受人们关注。本文对中国近60年来的研究状况,尤其近40年来研究历程进行了回顾,从总结经验与发展态势出发,对地貌学科未来发展方向提出了展望。分析认为,中国地貌学科在地貌基本类型、区划以及分支学科：包括动力地貌学（包括冰川地貌、冰缘地貌、风沙地貌、黄土地貌、喀斯特地貌、河流地貌、海岸地貌等）、构造地貌学、气候地貌学、古地貌、岩石地貌学（包括丹霞地貌、花岗岩与流纹岩地貌）、其他地貌类型（包括重力地貌,人工地貌）等方面取得重大进展,地貌学已逐渐发展成为一门拥有完整学科体系的科学。通过回顾认为,应坚持地貌成因、形态相统一的原则发展传统地貌与综合地貌。加强地貌基础理论与综合地貌研究、开展地貌结构及其功能研究、构建全方位资源环境地貌信息系统、加强海岸地貌与海洋地貌研究、加强人才培养和学术团队建设,将是中国实现地貌强国目标的主要途径。     

Debris flows in Glacier National Park, Montana: geomorphology and hazards

Debris flows are one of the many active slope-forming processes within Glacier National Park, Montana. Most debris flow landforms exhibit classic morphology with a distinct failure scarp, incised channel, channel levees, and toe deposits that often develop a lobate form. The Precambrian metasediments that dominate Glacier National Park's geology weather into angular clasts that range in size from platy gravels to boulders. Classic debris flows occur in areas where the topographic expression provides a debris source from cliff faces and an accumulation of regolith, often in the form of talus slopes. Many of these debris flows have long runout zones and can travel many hundreds of meters. Often they cross hiking trails or roads, including the main east–west highway, Going-to-the-Sun Road. Debris flows impacting the road have resulted in several near fatalities, and hikers have been forced to cross active debris flows to reach safe ground. The magnitude of debris flows varies between high magnitude channel incising events and low magnitude channel filling and/or reworking events. The frequency of debris flow events is irregular and appears to be controlled by the hydrology of triggering storms and antecedent moisture conditions, not by the debris supply. As a result, debris flow magnitude is not a function of frequency, but is more closely related to the characteristics of antecedent conditions and individual storms.     

Investigation of mountain permafrost in the Kozia Dolinka valley,Tatra Mountains,Poland

The Kozia Dolinka valley lies at an altitude above 1900 m a.s.l. on the northern slope of the main ridge of the High Tatra Mountains. Mountain permafrost occurrences were studied with the use of BTS, infrared imaging, water and ground temperature measurements and DC resistivity soundings. The data suggest the existence of isolated patches of permafrost. The lowest observed bottom temperature of winter snow values was in the order of-10C. DC soundings revealed the existence of a high resistivity layer of limited extent. Permafrost seasonal monitoring was conducted with resistivity soundings. Measurements were carried out in spring-autumn 1999, when a distinct change in permafrost thickness was observed.