Investigation and simulation of metallic spherules from lunar soils

Metallic spherules selected from the Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15 and 16 sites were studied by optical techniques as well as the electron probe and scanning electron microscope. In addition, metallic spherules of similar composition were produced experimentally. The structure of the metallic lunar spherules indicates an origin by solidification of molten globules of metal. The experimentally produced spherules have external morphologies, metallographic structures and solidification rates (7 × 10² to 10⁶ ° C/sec) similar to the lunar spherules which have rapidly solidified. The majority of the lunar spherules are, however, either more slowly cooled or have been reheated in place with the lunar fragmental rocks, glass or soil. The heavy meteorite bombardment of the highlands is strongly reflected by the evidence of reheating and/or slow cooling of a majority of Apollo 14 and 16 spherules.The metallic spherules are probably produced from both lunar and meteoritic sources. Impact processes cause localized shock melting of metallic (and non-metallic) constituents at metal-sulfide phase interfaces in surface rocks and in the meteoritic projectile. The major source of metallic spherules is the metal phase present in the lunar rocks and soil. The large variation in spherule bulk compositions is attributed to the different meteoritic projectiles bombarding the Moon, metal phases of differing compositions in the lunar soils and rocks and to the experimental results which indicate that high S, high P alloys form two immiscible liquids when melted.     

陨石撞击成因气凝球粒及撞击烟柱的化学特征

陨石撞击地球表面往往产生灾难性的影响,然而这种影响往往很快地被地表活跃的地质与生物营力所抹去。撞击事件所产生的烟柱,携带大量气体、液滴和尘埃抛溅到距离撞击坑很远的地方,这些烟柱冷凝后成为球形颗粒被保存到地层中,为还原地球早期撞击事件、评估其对环境的影响提供了重要证据。本研究聚焦于撞击烟柱中高温矿物气体冷凝而成的气凝球粒,仔细分析了其中原生尖晶石相的化学成分特征,并以此为窗口推测了烟柱中的气体成分、氧逸度等。我们的研究表明,由于气凝球粒中尖晶石Fe3+/FeTOT的比值往往很高,而单纯矿物气液平衡本身过于还原,因此气凝球粒的形成需要有撞击烟柱中混杂的空气参与作用。气凝球粒也因而在一定程度上提供了地球早期大气中氧逸度变化以及撞击烟柱不均一性的记录。这一推断与前人依据实验和地球化学分析得到的推测一致,为关于气凝球粒形成机制的数值模拟研究提供了重要启示。     

Solar cosmic ray records in lunar rock 64455

Cosmic ray produced ¹⁰Be (half-life = 1.36 × 10⁶ yr), ²⁶Al (7.05 × 10⁵ yr), and ³⁶Cl (3.01 × 10⁵ yr) were measured in a depth profile of 19 carefully-ground samples from the glass-coated lunar surface rock 64455. The solar cosmic ray (SCR) produced ²⁶Al and ³⁶Cl in this rock are present in high concentrations, which in combination with the low observed erosion rate, <0.5 mm/Myr, provide well defined depth profiles characterizing the SCR component of the cosmic rays. In conjunction with new experimentally determined excitation functions, the ³⁶Cl concentrations suggest a softer solar-proton spectral shape than that derived from most previous measurements. The fact that no SCR-produced ¹⁰Be activity could be detected in 64455 is in good agreement with observations in 68815 and also indicates a softer SCR spectrum. Comparison of observed SCR profiles in 64455 with theoretical calculations indicates that the average solar-proton spectrum over the past 2 Myr (based on ²⁶Al) has an exponential rigidity parameter (R₀) of about 90 MV with a proton flux (J) of 73 protons/cm²/s·4π above 10 MeV. Over the last ∼0.5 Myr (based on ³⁶Cl) R₀ is about 70 MV with a flux of ∼196 protons/cm²/s·4π above 10 MeV. These SCR fluxes are consistent with most previous work.     

Trace element geochemistry of K-rich impact spherules from howardites

The howardite–eucrite–diogenite (HED) achondrites are a group of meteorites that probably originate from the asteroid Vesta. Howardites are complex polymict breccias that sometimes contain, in addition to various rock debris, impact melt glasses which show an impressive range of compositions. In this paper we report on the geochemistry and O isotopes of a series of 6 Saharan polymict breccias (4 howardites and 2 polymict eucrites), and on the trace element abundances of high-K impact spherules found in two of them, Northwest Africa (NWA) 1664 and 1769, which are likely paired.The high-K impact spherules found in the howardites NWA 1664 and NWA 1769 display remarkable trace element patterns. Compared to eucrites or howardites, they all show prominent enrichments in Cs, Rb, K, Li and Ba, strong depletion in Na, while the REE and other refractory elements are unfractionated. These features could not have been generated during impact melting of their host howardites, nor other normal HED target materials. The involvement of Na-poor rocks, and possibly rocks of granitic composition, appears likely. Although these lithologies cannot be well constrained at present, our results demonstrate that the surface of Vesta is certainly more diverse than previously thought. Indeed, despite the large number of available HED meteorites (about 1000 different meteorites), the latter are probably not sufficient to describe the whole surface of their parent body.     

Apollo 11月壤样品中太阳风成因的水及其意义

为研究太阳风成因水在月表低纬度地区的分布特征,本文对中国科学院地质与地球物理研究所博物馆珍藏的一份Apollo 11月壤样品开展了单颗粒原位纳米离子探针H同位素和水含量深度剖面分析。结果表明月壤颗粒表层（< 200nm）具有较高的水含量（剖面最大水含量变化范围为0.35%~1.59%,平均值为0.82%）,该结果与前人对Apollo样品的报导类似。除一颗斜长石的H同位素组成（δD=-262‰）落在月幔范围内,其余颗粒表层均非常贫D（δD变化范围为-987‰~-642‰）。该强烈贫D的同位素组成与太阳风一致,完全不同于地球大气水,不仅证明这些样品的月球来源,并且主要是太阳风注入的贡献。矿物颗粒之间的水含量和δD值变化,很可能与太阳风注入后的扩散丢失程度不同有关。另外,我们观察到橄榄石、单斜辉石和长石的水含量剖面比较类似,整体呈现随深度逐渐递减的趋势。相比之下,玻璃质颗粒的水含量剖面呈现随深度先上升再降低的峰形特征,峰位在25~43nm深度。这两者之间的差异很可能跟H在矿物和玻璃中的扩散速率、辐射损伤层等的差异有关。本项研究也证明,即使对于H这样易于受地球污染的元素,在普通条件下（北京、瓶中密封）经过长达50多年的时间,仍能很好地保存注入月壤颗粒中的太阳风信息。但是低温、干燥和真空/惰性气体环境仍是长期保存的有利条件。

     

Ages of lunar impact breccias: Limits for timing of the Imbrium impact

Since the Apollo 14 mission delivered samples of the Fra Mauro formation, interpreted as ejecta of the Imbrium impact, defining the age of this impact has emerged as one of the critical tasks required for the complete understanding of the asteroid bombardment history of the Moon and, by extension, the inner Solar System. Significant effort dedicated to this task has resulted in a substantial set of ages centered around 3.9 Ga and obtained for the samples from most Apollo landing sites using a variety of chronological methods. However, the available age data are scattered over a range of a few tens of millions of years, which hinders the ability to distinguish between the samples that are truly representative of the Imbrium impact and those formed/reset by other, broadly contemporaneous impact events. This study presents a new set of U-Pb ages obtained for the VHK (very high K) basalt clasts found in the Apollo 14 breccia sample 14305 and phosphates from (i) several fragments of impact-melt breccia extracted from Apollo 14 soil sample 14161, and (ii) two Apollo 15 breccias 15455 and 15445. The new data obtained for the Apollo 14 samples increase the number of independently dated samples from this landing site to ten. These Apollo 14 samples represent the Fra Mauro formation, which is traditionally viewed as Imbrium ejecta, and therefore should record the age of the Imbrium impact. Using the variance of ten ages, we propose an age of 3922 ± 12 Ma for this event. Samples that yield ages within these limits can be considered as possible products of the Imbrium impact, while those that fall significantly outside this range should be treated as representing different impact events. Comparison of this age for Imbrium (determined from Apollo 14 samples) with the ages of another eleven impact-melt breccia samples collected at four other landing sites and a related lunar meteorite suggests that they can be viewed as part of Imbrium ejecta. Comprehensive review of ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages available for impact melt samples from different landing sites and obtained using the step-heating technique, suggests that the majority of the samples that gave robust plateau ages are indistinguishable within uncertainties and altogether yield a weighted average age of 3916 ± 7 Ma (95 % conf., MSWD = 1.1; P = 0.13) and a median average age of 3919 + 14/-12 Ma, both of which agree with the confidence interval obtained using the U-Pb system. These samples, dated by ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar method, can be also viewed as representing the Imbrium impact. In total 36 out of 41 breccia samples from five landing sites can be interpreted to represent formation of the Imbrium basin, supporting the conclusion that Imbrium material was distributed widely across the near side of the Moon. Establishing temporal limits for the Imbrium impact allows discrimination of ten samples with Rb-Sr and ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages about 50 Ma younger than 3922 ± 12 Ma. This group may represent a separate single impact on the Moon and needs to be investigated further to improve our understanding of lunar impact history.     

月球撞击坑自动识别和分类方法研究进展

撞击坑是研究月球最直接的对象,也是月球表面最为普遍且显著的地貌单元和地质构造标志,在行星地质学研究中具有重要的地位。通过对月球撞击坑识别方法和撞击坑分类方法研究进展进行概述及总结,将月球撞击坑识别方法概括为人工识别、基于形态特征提取算法、基于机器学习算法、基于地理信息融合分析算法4类,并对月球撞击坑识别方法研究中存在的问题进行了分析。     

Irradiation records in regolith materials. I: isotopic compositions of solar-wind neon and argon in single lunar mineral grains

We have applied a stepwise pyrolytic extraction technique to eleven individual lunar regolith grains to investigate the compositions of light noble gases embedded in grain surfaces by solar wind irradiation, with emphasis on the rather poorly known isotopic composition of solar-wind argon. Results are intriguing: average ²⁰Ne/²²Ne ratios observed in early pyrolytic releases from ilmenite grains separated from lunar soils 71501, 79035 and 10084 agree very well with both direct measures of the solar wind neon composition in the Apollo foils and with values obtained in first releases from acid-etched ilmenites by the Zürich laboratory, whereas these same pyrolytic and acid-etch fractions carry argon isotopic signatures that significantly disagree—average ³⁶Ar/³⁸Ar ratios near 5.8 for thermal extraction compared to 5.4–5.5 for chemical etching at Zürich. Consideration of the isotopic and elemental data from these grains in the context of first-order diffusive modeling calculations points to gas release at low temperatures, without significant isotopic or elemental fractionation, from isolated grain-surface reservoirs of solar wind composition. The physical nature of these reservoirs is presently unknown. In this interpretation the preferred solar wind ²⁰Ne/²²Ne and ²¹Ne/²²Ne ratios deduced from this study are respectively 13.81 ± 0.08 and 0.0333 ± 0.0003, both within error of the Zürich acid-etch values, and ³⁶Ar/³⁸Ar = 5.77 ± 0.08. It may be possible to reconcile the discrepancy between the acid-etch and pyrolytic estimates for the solar wind ³⁶Ar/³⁸Ar ratio in the context of arguments originally advanced by Benkert et al. (1993) to account for their He and Ne isotopic compositions. At the other, high-temperature end of the release profile from one of these grains there are clear isotopic indications of the presence of a Ne constituent with ²⁰Ne/²²Ne close to the 11.2 ratio found at Zürich and attributed by these workers to a deeply-sited component implanted by solar energetic particles.     

一块新发现的月球陨石NWA 12279的岩石矿物学、源区和冲击变质作用

NWA 12279为2016年发现的一块斜长岩质月球陨石,由86%的斜长岩和14%的冲击熔融角砾岩组成。斜长岩具嵌晶结构,矿物组成主要为斜长石(70. 6%)、橄榄石(11. 3%)、辉石(10. 0%)、镁铝尖晶石(7. 0%),含少量石英、铬铁矿和钛铁矿;冲击熔融角砾岩具角砾状结构,主要由岩屑(斜长岩、辉长-橄长-斜长岩、微斑熔融角砾岩、辉长岩)、晶屑(橄榄石、辉石、斜长石、尖晶石)、玻屑和基质组成。斜长岩和角砾岩的矿物组成基本一致,主要为斜长石(An_(92. 9～98. 4))、紫苏辉石(Fs_(15. 5～32. 2)Wo_(2. 98～4. 22))、易变辉石(Fs_(27. 9～53. 1)Wo_(7. 19～14. 7))、普通辉石(Fs_(8. 42～38. 9)Wo_(17. 0～44. 1))、橄榄石(Fo_(53. 7～89. 4))、尖晶石[(Mg_(4. 97)Fe_(0. 86))_(5. 83)(Al_(11. 4)Cr_(0. 61))_(12. 0)O_(24)]。通过对陨石的矿物组成、碎屑组成、矿物成分、全岩成分和冲击变质特征进行研究,并和已发现的月球斜长岩进行了对比,认为该陨石可能起源于一个新的富含尖晶石的辉长橄长斜长岩高地。该陨石的斜长岩和角砾岩具有不同的冲击特征,斜长岩区域发育橄榄石面状破裂、斜长石熔长石化及含未熔融的辉石和橄榄石晶屑的冲击熔脉;角砾岩区域发育玻璃质熔脉、冲击熔体及岩石角砾化,这些特征限制了斜长岩区和角砾岩区经历的冲击压力峰值分别约为45 GPa和78 GPa,温度峰值分别约为1 100℃和1890℃,冲击变质阶段为S_5～S_6。     

Geochemistry of Cenozoic microtektites and clinopyroxene-bearing spherules

We have determined the major and trace element compositions of 176 individual microtektites/spherules from the Australasian, Ivory Coast, and North American microtektite and clinopyroxene-bearing (cpx) spherule layers. Trace element contents for up to 30 trace elements were determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), and major element compositions were determined using energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis in combination with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). In addition, petrographic data were obtained for the cpx spherules using the SEM and EDX. This is the first trace element study of individual Australasian microtektites, and the data revealed the presence of a previously unrecognized group of Australasian microtektites with high contents of Ni (up to 471 ppm). In previous studies the high-Mg (HMg) Australasian microtektites were thought to be related to the HMg Australasian tektites, but our trace element data suggest that the high-Ni (HNi) Australasian microtektites, rather than the high-Mg microtektites, are related to the high-Mg Australasian tektites. We find that Cenozoic microtektites/spherules from a given layer can be distinguished from microtektites/spherules from other layers as a group, but it is not always possible to determine which layer an individual microtektite/spherule came from based only on trace element compositions. The cpx spherules and most of the microtektites have Cr, Co, and Ni contents that are higher than the average contents of these elements in the upper continental crust, suggesting the presence of a meteoritic component. The highest Cr, Co, and Ni contents are found in the cpx spherules (and low-Si cpx-related microtektites). Unetched to slightly etched cpx spherules have Ni/Cr and Ni/Co ratios that generally lie along mixing curves between the average upper continental crust and chondrites. The best fit appears to be with an LL chondrite. The moderately to heavily etched cpx spherules have values that lie off the mixing curves in a direction that suggests Ni loss, probably as a result of solution of a Ni-rich phase (olivine?). The Ni-rich Australasian microtektites also have Ni values that lie close to mixing curves between the average upper continental crust and chondrites. However, both the cpx spherules and HNi Australasian microtektites appear to have Ir (and to a lesser extent Au) contents that are much too low to have Ni/Ir ratios similar to chondritic values. We have no explanation for the low-Ir and -Au contents except to speculate that they may be the result of a complex fractionation process. The Ivory Coast and North American microtektites do not have high enough siderophile element contents to reach any firm conclusions regarding the presence of, or nature of, a meteoritic component in them. Trace element compositions are consistent with derivation of the Cenozoic microtektite/spherule layers from upper continental crust. The normal Australasian microtektites appear to have been derived from a graywacke or lithic arenite with a range in clay and quartz content. The source rock for the high-Mg Australasian microtektites is not known, but the HMg microtektites do not appear to be normal Australasian microtektites that were simply contaminated by meteorites or ultramafic rocks. The average Ivory Coast microtektite composition can be matched with a mixture of target rocks at the Bosumtwi crater. The average composition of the North American microtektites suggests an arkosic source rock, but with graywacke and quartz-rich end members. However, we could not match the composition of the North American microtektites with lithologies in impact breccias recovered from the Chesapeake Bay impact structure that is believed to be the source crater. Likewise, we could not match the composition of the cpx spherules with mixtures of basement rocks and overlying sedimentary deposits (for which compositional data are available) at the Popigai impact crater that may be the source crater for the cpx spherules. This may be because the cpx spherules were derived, in large part, from clastic surface rocks (sandstones and shales) for which no compositional data are available.     

月壤及模拟月壤微观结构的研究

为了对比研究月壤与模拟月壤的微观结构,介绍了月壤的形成作用过程和5种基本颗粒类型;通过真实月壤照片,对月壤微观结构进行了分析;利用火山灰为模拟月壤主体材料,对其成分进行了检测;对模拟月壤的火山灰颗粒进行了显微图像分析试验。结果表明,月壤存在胶结物微观颗粒,胶结物颗粒具有分支的组织形态和封闭的气泡,并且有金属铁珠存在;火山灰所含的主要成分及含量与月壤相似,经过粉碎的火山灰试样棱角较为明显,其纵横比峰值略小,稍显长条状,但与月壤比较相近,而复杂度因子则略有欠缺,说明颗粒还不够粗糙和多棱     

月球东海盆地综合解析与撞击初始条件的研究

东海是月球上最年轻的多环撞击盆地,关于其形成机制的研究很多,但成果大都基于正撞击的机制提出的,虽然有部分学者提出东海是斜撞击的,但缺乏具体撞击参数。本文通过多源数据融合,综合分析LRO影像数据、LOLA地形数据、M~3高光谱数据和IIM高光谱数据,对东海地区的地貌特征、物质成分进行了较为系统的解译,发现在东海中央熔融区存在一条与东海撞击方向垂直的中央隆起区域(中央隆起线),其也是中央熔融区粗糙部分与光滑部分的分界线,结合撞击坑成坑理论,认为其可能是撞击过程冲击波作用引起的堆叠作用形成的。同时利用GRAIL数据及对该地区的重力异常的成因进行了分析,认为异常是由于压强、温度及岩石粘度的改变引起局部莫霍面抬升和中央熔融物的形成而出现的,进而估算出熔融物占盆地内物质的25%,约为1.1×10~6km~3。同时,对GRAIL数据的剖面分析结果也支持了本文的斜撞击理论。最后,综合多方面的信息和撞击理论获取东海盆地构造分布图,并根据中央隆起线、溅射物及线性构造的分布特征等,提出东海盆地理论上是由一直径在50~100km的撞击体以10~30km/s的速度自东偏北约20°~30°方向以20°~30°的角度斜撞击月表而形成的。这可为研究更早期的月球撞击坑提供理论参考。     

撞击过程和内太阳系撞击历史

在太阳系的形成和演化过程中,发生在天体物质间的撞击作用是最重要的地质过程之一。撞击构造是地外天体表面最常见的地貌单元,大部分天体的地貌演化主要受撞击作用控制。撞击过程产生的温度、压力和应变速率比岩石圈内的其他地质过程高多个数量级,形成广泛分布的撞击产物,如气化物、熔融物、冲击变质和变形等。虽然撞击过程转瞬即逝,撞击作用向天体注入能量并改变其内、外结构,对天体的圈层系统产生长远影响。持续撞击在天体表面累积了大量的撞击坑,撞击坑的空间分布反映了受外来撞击的历史。内太阳系在～3.8 Ga前的撞击频率更高,但是大量撞击盆地是否灾变式的密集形成仍在持续争议;～3.8 Ga以来的撞击频率趋于稳定,但是缺乏具有明确事件指代性的标定样品。在同一天体上,撞击坑的空间密度指示了相应地质单元的形成时间,因此撞击坑统计常被用于估算地外天体表面地质单元的相对年龄。基于月球软着陆探测任务返回的样品,前人已约束了不同直径的月球撞击坑的形成频率,进而建立了使用撞击坑统计估算月球表面地质单元的绝对模式年龄的方法。另外,内太阳系天体可能经历了相似的撞击历史,因此地-月系统的撞击频率已被缩放至其他类地行星。撞击坑统计是探索...     

Ablation spherules in the Sikhote Alin meteorite and their genesis

Practically all of the examined spherules extracted in 1948?C1949 from soil at the crater field of the 1947 Sikhote Alin meteorite shower are ablation spherules produced during this meteorite fall. The spherules can classified into two textural types: (i) fine-grained, which consist of Ni-bearing magnetite (3?C6 wt % NiO) dendrites, sometimes with minor amounts of interstitial P- and Fe-rich material, and (ii) coarse-grained, which also consist of Ni-bearing magnetite dendrites or grains, sometimes with wuestite, an interstitial material, which resembles that in type (i) or has a silicate composition. The texture, mineralogy, and chemistry (presence of P and Si) of these spherules differ from those of iron cosmic spherules (type I) that occur in the background flux of micrometeorites. The spherules are thought to were produced by the ablation of meteoritic material at elevations of about 12 km (in the region where disintegration starts) and below, at maximum temperatures of 1600?C2180°C and oxygen fugacity of 10^?14 to 10^?1 atm. Conceivably, the ablated material was enriched in silicates compared to the fallen material.     

Cosmic-ray constancy and cosmogenic production rates in short-lived chondrites

Five chondrites with short cosmic ray exposure ages (< 3Myr) have been analyzed for ⁵³Mn (t_1.2 = 3.7Myr), ^26Al(t_1.2 = 0.72Myr) and the stable isotopes of He, Ar, and in particular, Ne. In addition, rare gases were determined for five other short-lived chondrites from the same aliquots which had previously been used for ²⁶Al and ⁵³Mn determinations by the Cologne Laboratory. Improved curves of growth were constructed for ²⁶Al and ⁵³Mn to deduce the respective saturation values ²⁶Al₀ and ⁵³Mn₀ and to obtain ²¹Ne production rates (²¹P).²⁶Al and ⁵³Mn saturation values deduced from short-lived chondrites alone agree within 20%, with those deduced from all chondrites. Values of ²¹p based on ⁵³Mn and ²⁶Al are 0.30 ± 0.03 and 0.46 ± 0.05, respectively, in H chondrites. Possible causes for the difference include half-life errors, data selection and a recent (?2.5Myr) increase in the cosmic ray intensity.     

Fluorine in lunar samples: implications concerning lunar fluorapatite

The F contents of a number of Apollo 14 and 15 samples range from less than a ppm for anorthosite rock fragments to ~165 ppm for some soils and breccias. Apollo 15 soils tend to have lower F contents (50–70 ppm) than soils from other sites. In most cases samples were run simultaneously with W-1 in which F was determined to be 216 (±11) ppm.The $\text{F}\text{P}{}_2\text{O}{}_5$ ratio is 0·032 ± 0·005 in soils and rocks. A correlation exists in soils between F, P₂O₅, and that fraction of the Cl which is insoluble in hot water. The $\text{F}\text{Cl}{}_{\mathrm{r}}$ ratio in soils and rocks, though different, requires that the phosphate phase involved be fluorapatite; this is consistent with mineralogical observations. F, like Cl, is correlated with KREEP elements at all sites for which data are available.     

Aluminous enstatites of lunar meteorites and deep-seated lunar rocks

Fragments of aluminous enstatite from lunar meteorites of highland origin were investigated. It was found that such fragments usually occur in impact breccias of troctolitic composition. The aluminous enstatite contains up to 12 wt % Al₂O₃ and shows low CaO (<1 wt %) and almost constant high Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratio (89.5 ± 1.4 at %) identical to that of the Earth’s mantle. With respect to these parameters, the aluminous enstatites are distinctly different from common orthopyroxene of lunar rocks. The aluminous enstatite associates with spinel (pleonaste), olivine, anorthite (clinopyroxene was never found), and accessory minerals: rutile, Ti-Zr oxides, troilite, and Fe-Ni metal. The same assemblage was described in rare fragments of spinel cataclasites from the samples of the Apollo missions. Thermobarometry and the analysis of phase equilibria showed that the rocks hosting aluminous enstatite are of deep origin and occurred at depths from 25 km to 130–200 km at T from 800 to 1300°C, i.e., at least in the lower crust and, possibly, in the upper mantle of the Moon. These rocks could form individual plutons or dominate the composition of the lower crust. The most probable source of aluminous enstatite is troctolitic magnesian rocks and, especially, spinel troctolites with low Ca/Al and Ca/Si ratios. The decompression of such rocks must produce cordierite-bearing assemblages. The almost complete absence of such assemblages in the surficial rocks of lunar highlands implies that vertical tectonic movements were practically absent in the lunar crust. The transport of deep-seated materials to the lunar surface was probably related to impact events during the intense meteorite bombardments >3.9 Ga ago.