Stress,strain and fault patterns

If faulting is treated as a stress-controlled phenomenon, the generation of a single fault set, or two sets in conjugate arrangement are inevitably predicted implying plane strain. Alternatively, considering faulting as a strain-controlled process, multiple-set patterns can be predicted. The analysis of multiple-set patterns requires identifying the type of fault pattern from four possibilities: Coulomb, isolated, orthorhombic and complex fault patterns.There are techniques that permit a unique solution of strain tensor for Coulomb and orthorhombic fault patterns. For isolated fault patterns, the principal paleostress directions could be used to approximate the principal strain directions. In this case, we need to assume a homogeneous stress field, independence between faults, and parallelism between shear stress and slip vector on the sliding plane.For complex fault patterns, it is not possible to uniquely determine the total strain tensor without knowledge of all the slip planes. Furthermore, inverting fault-slip data to determine the stress tensor is not correct because the assumptions of the inversion methods are not satisfied. Only a rough approximation is possible assuming that strain produced by major faults represents the total strain tensor.     

汊涧斜坡带阜宁期应力场数值模拟及低级序断层发育规律预测

汊涧斜坡带位于金湖凹陷西斜坡南部,第三系沉积期间主要经历了吴堡和三垛运动,形成了复杂的断裂体系,属复杂断块油藏,区内低级序断层较为发育。根据断层平面展布确定阜宁期最小主应力方向为北北西350°,采用有限元法建立地质模型并进行构造应力场数值模拟,计算得出各应力分布,并据此对低级序断层发育规律进行预测。研究表明,汊涧斜坡带阜宁期最大、最小主应力均为水平方向,形成的低级序断层具有张扭性特征;低级序断层的发育主要受最大与最小主应力差值及剪应力控制,主应力差值控制断层优势发育地区,平面剪应力控制断层走向,剖面剪应力控制断层倾向。     

廊固凹陷沙四晚期构造应力场模拟及低级序断层预测

在了解区域构造背景、分析断层活动特征及构造演化特征的基础上,对廊固凹陷沙四晚期构造应力场进行数值模拟,并对低级序断层发育进行预测。研究结果表明,研究区在沙四晚期活动的主要断层包括大兴断层、半截河断层等6条,牛北斜坡构造带与河西务构造带在该时期隆起明显,综合分析可知该时期最小主应力方向为SE144°—NW324°;低级序断层发育受最小主应力、剪应力等的影响,最小主应力和最大主应力与最小主应力的差值控制断层的优势发育区,平面剪应力控制断层走向,该区主要发育北北东—北东走向的断层;剖面剪应力在大部分区域为左旋,表明断层视倾向以北西向为主。     

上海及邻区新构造应力场初步探讨

本文从活动断裂、水系分布方向、地震震源机制解三个方面,对上海及邻区新构造应力场进行了探讨。从新构造期活动断裂的力学性质分析,本区主压应力场方向为北东东至近东西;从水系河谷分布的优势方向推论出的主压应力场方向为96°左右;用本区56个地震震源机制解的 P轴赤平极射投影的极点统计分析法,确定主压应力方向约为80°;三者大体一致,说明它们是同一构造应力场的产物,其主压应力场方向为近东—西向。     

基于边界元方法的次级断裂信息挖掘试验研究

为研究次级断裂发育状况,探讨了一种地震解释主断层与地质力学相结合的边界元模拟方法:首先在安德森断层分类体系下,依据断层与应力组合特征,完善次级断裂构造演化事件分类;然后应用应力张量降阶、线性叠加原理,简化应力与位移平衡方程,并在此基础上使用蒙特卡洛方法反演古应力场;最后求解应力、应变与不连续位移平衡方程,获取地层现今应力分布,分析次级断裂开度、相对密度等信息。运用该方法在杨柳矿区童亭背斜区域开展试验,结果表明区域内最小水平主应力以近北西向为主,主断层之间广泛发育交叉断裂带,次级断裂发育带连通性强,为杨柳矿区隐蔽灾害评估提供了参考资料。      

苏北盆地海安凹陷现今构造应力场特征及构造样式

通过对苏北盆地海安凹陷T₄0反射层现今构造应力场、次级凹陷边界二级断裂和次级凹陷内三、四级断裂力学性质及其构造活动样式等分析研究认为:海安凹陷现今最大主应力方向为NE 70°左右;现今最大主应力为50 MPa左右,现今最小主应力为30 MPa左右。海安凹陷内次级凹陷边界二级断裂现今主要表现为张性或张扭性活动特征,张扭性活动方式既有顺扭也有反扭,并且同一断裂不同部位活动性质存在差异;海安凹陷内次级凹陷三、四级断裂现今也主要表现为张性或张扭性活动特征,张扭性活动方式既有顺扭也有反扭,个别表现为压性和压扭性活动,并且同一断裂不同部位活动性质存在差异。      

Stress fields and fault reactivation angles of the 2000 western Tottori aftershocks and the 2001 northern Hyogo swarm in southwest Japan

We estimated the stress fields of the aftershocks of the 2000 western Tottori earthquake (M_w 6.6) and the northern Hyogo swarm (max M_w 5.2) by a stress tensor inversion of moment tensor solutions reported from the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (Japan). The maximum principal stress direction of the western Tottori sequence was estimated as N107°E with a strike–slip regime. In the northern Hyogo swarm, the orientations of the principal stress directions could not be well constrained by the observed data, but after examining the detailed characteristics of the solution, we obtained a most probable solution of N113°E for the σ₁ direction. These solutions are consistent with the maximum horizontal directions roughly estimated from the strike directions of large earthquakes occurring geographically between these two seismic activities. We measured the angle between each fault–slip direction and maximum principal stress direction to investigate the frictional properties of earthquakes. The distribution of the angles was forward modeled to estimate the coefficient of friction and the stress ratio, assuming uniformly distributed fault orientations. For the western Tottori sequence, a homogeneous stress field with a coefficient of friction less than 0.4 was estimated. A high stress level was also suggested because very little change occurred in the stress field during the mainshock. For the northern Hyogo sequence, the coefficient of friction was estimated to be between 0.5 and 1.0.     

基于地应力实测数据分析郯庐断裂带中段滑动趋势

郯庐断裂带潜在滑动趋势对于区域地壳稳定性评价具有重要的意义。对郯庐断裂带中段(新沂至渤海段)附近12个钻孔共65条实测地应力数据分析,得出该区段最大和最小水平主应力与垂直应力之比Kmax和Kmin的范围,结果表明郯庐断裂带中段主要表现为逆断层的应力状态,局部地区呈现出有利于走滑断层的特征。研究区内应力比K值由西向东逐渐增大,并在东北部达到最大。通过计算得出断层面上的剪应力与有效正应力比值小于Byerlee准则所定义的摩擦系数,说明目前郯庐断裂带中段处于相对稳定状态;同时发现北西向断裂面上的剪应力与有效正应力比值比北东向断裂的大。区内应力积累指标μm的计算结果和地震的分布特征表明,郯庐断裂带中段北西向断裂上地震活动频繁,应力积累程度低;而北东向断层上应力积累程度高,特别是处于郯庐断裂带中段东北部的北东向断层,在应力集中的区域出现地震空白区,推测为断层的锁固段。最终认为在现今应力场下郯庐断裂带中段更易沿北西向的断裂滑动。     

The 2002 Molise earthquake sequence: What can we learn about the tectonics of southern Italy?

On October 31, 2002 a M_L = 5.4 earthquake occurred in southern Italy, at the margin between the Apenninic thrust belt (to the west) and the Adriatic plate (to the east). In this area, neither historical event nor seismogenic fault is reported in the literature. In spite of its moderate magnitude, the earthquake caused severe damage in cities close to the epicenter and 27 people, out of a total of 29 casualties, were killed by the collapse of a primary school in S. Giuliano di Puglia. By inverting broadband regional waveforms, we computed moment tensor solutions for 15 events, as small as M_L = 3.5 (M_w = 3.7). The obtained focal mechanisms show pure strike-slip geometry, mainly with focal planes oriented to NS (sinistral) and EW (dextral). In several solutions focal planes are rotated counterclockwise, in particular for later events, occurring west of the mainshock. From the relocated aftershock distribution, we found that the mainshock ruptured along an EW plane, and the fault mechanisms of some aftershocks were not consistent with the mainshock fault plane. The observed stress field, resulting from the stress tensor inversion, shows a maximum principal stress axis with an east–west trend (N83°W), whereas the minimum stress direction is almost N–S. Considering both the aftershock distribution and moment tensor solutions, it appears that several pre-existing faults were activated rather than a single planar fault associated with the mainshock. The finite fault analysis shows a very simple slip distribution with a slow rupture velocity of 1.1 km/s, that could explain the occurrence of a second mainshock about 30 h after. Finally, we attempt to interpret how the Molise sequence is related to the normal faulting system to the west (along the Apennines) and the dextral strike-slip Mattinata fault to the east.     

Structural analysis of faults related to a heterogeneous stress history: reconstruction of a dismembered gold deposit,Stawell, western Lachlan Fold Belt,Australia

In the internationally significant Victorian goldfields a complex system of faults dismembers the 5 million ounce Magdala gold deposit. These faults represent a combination of neoformed faults and inherited faults that reflect deformation associated with stress tensors of variable orientation and stress shape ratio (φ). The fault geometry is strongly controlled by the pre-existing rheology. Faults have propagated around the flanks of an antiformal basalt dome, along earlier ductile cleavages and the margins of porphyry dykes. Many of the faults do not have Andersonian geometries and there is no correlation between the orientation of the faults and the palaeostress directions. Much of the faulting is associated with the emplacement of porphyry dykes, additional gold mineralisation related to plutonism and late-stage deformation post-dating the intrusion of the Stawell pluton. Systematic mapping of extension veins associated with faults, striations and conjugate joint sets allowed the construction of a revised and more robust history of brittle deformation. This successfully predicted the offset direction of the currently mined Magdala ore body beneath the studied system of faults. The use of extension veins was a critical aspect of the analysis. If striations on the fault surfaces had solely been used, the offset direction of the new Golden Gift orebody would not have been correctly ascertained. The palaeostress history was delineated via use of compression and tension dihedra, stress inversion of slip data and calculation of theoretical resolved shear stress for faults with orientations similar to those mapped. The calculation of theoretical resolved shear stress directions highlights the importance that the intermediate stress has on the slip direction for faults whose pole does not lie in the plane containing σ₁ and σ₃.     

成兰铁路地应力测量与构造应力场分布规律研究

成兰铁路位于青藏高原东部边缘高山峡谷区,由于印度板块与欧亚板块碰撞,区域内构造变形强烈,构造应力场十分复杂。为研究成兰铁路工程区地应力分布规律及断层稳定性,在铁路沿线茂县、松潘县以及宕昌县境内4个深孔水压致裂地应力测量基础上,获得了不同位置区域地应力实测值的大小和方向,并建立工程区应力参数随深度分布规律。分析表明:工程区应力随深度变化呈现出较好的线性关系,在测试深度范围内,水平应力普遍高于垂直主应力,地应力值总体上属于中—高地应力级别,在750 m深度内,最大水平主应力达25 MPa,反映出工程区构造应力占主导地位,侧压系数随深度呈缓慢衰减趋势。成兰铁路在不同构造单元上最大水平主应力方向有所不同,在东昆仑断裂以北甘南块体内,最大水平主应力为北北东向,在东昆仑断裂以南川青块体内最大水平主应力为北西向。根据实测的地应力数据并结合库伦滑动摩擦准则,对工程区内的断层稳定性进行了分析。文中取得的认识对成兰铁路工程区的构造应力场、断裂活动性的研究以及隧道工程的建设具有重要的参考意义。     

塔中地区构造应力场数值模拟研究

构造应力场研究对于油气运聚分析及储层特征描述具有重要的理论和实际意义。本文根据塔中隆起断裂特征及其演化史,结合钻井资料,选择中下奥陶统碳酸盐岩为主要研究对象,应用大型有限元分析软件ANSYS,在处理断层问题时运用非连续的接触算法,模拟了中奥陶世末、中泥盆世末、三叠纪末、新近纪末的构造应力场,研究了该区不同时期的古应力分布特征。研究表明,最大主压应力受东部车尔臣-星星峡走滑断裂影响显著,在隆起区沿断裂带呈条带状低值分布,在不同时期塔中Ⅰ号断裂带无一例外地位于最大主压应力的最低区,反映了塔中断裂带尤其是塔中Ⅰ号断裂带是油气运移的有利指向区。最小主压应力沿断裂带呈条带状高值分布,在断裂的上盘、断裂走向发生变化和断裂的倾末端是张应力高值区,为张裂缝发育的重要构造部位。最小主压应力和最大剪应力受车尔臣-星星峡走滑断裂的影响明显减弱。     

Effect of block rotation on the pitch of slickenlines

Rotation of faults or pre-existing weakness planes produce two effects on the slickenlines of fault planes. First, the rotation leads to changes in the pitch of slickenlines. As a result, the aspect of the pre-existing fault may change. For example, after rotation, a normal fault may show features of an oblique fault, a strike-slip fault, or a thrust fault. Second, due to rotation, stress states on the fault planes are different from those before the rotation. As a consequence some previous planes may be reactivated. For an isolated plane, the reactivation due to rotation can produce new sets of slickenlines. With block rotation, superimposed slickenlines can be generated in the same tectonic phase. Thus, it is not appropriate to use fault-slip data from slickenlines to analyze the stress tensor in a region where there is evidence of block rotation. As an example, we present the data of slickenlines from core samples in the Tunich area of the Gulf of Mexico. The results wrongly indicate that the calculated stress tensor deviates from the far-field stress tensor.     

高邮凹陷真武断裂带西部低级序断层发育规律预测

在应用蚂蚁追踪技术对真武断裂带西部低级序断层进行解释并根据主要断层走向确定阜宁期构造应力方向的基础上,应用构造应力场数值模拟法模拟阜宁期古构造应力的分布,从应力的角度对低级序断层的平面及剖面发育规律进行预测,最后将预测结果与构造解析结果进行对比。研究结果表明,应用蚂蚁追踪技术对低级序断层进行解释获得的蚂蚁属性体断裂痕迹清晰直观,应用效果要优于相干体技术、方差体技术等其他地震属性技术;真武断裂带西部阜宁期最小主应力方向为NW333°-SE153°;低级序断层的发育主要受阜宁期最小主应力及剪应力控制,最小主应力控制断层的优势发育区,平面剪应力控制断层的平面展布,左旋剪应力区主要发育近东西走向断层,右旋剪应力区主要发育北东走向断层,剖面剪应力控制断层的倾向,左旋剪应力区主要发育北倾、西倾断层,右旋剪应力区主要发育南倾、东倾断层。      

金川三矿地应力测量及应力状态特征研究

金川三矿位于金川矿区F17断层以东,是超基性贫矿。随着选矿和冶炼水平的提高,三矿区逐渐进入开采阶段。了解矿山深部的地应力状态可以为巷道开挖和支护设计提供科学依据。为此在三矿1 200 m水平进行了系统的地应力测量,以了解三矿区的地应力状态特征。现场测量采用改进的空芯包体应力解除法,共获得了7个测点的三维应力数据,并绘出了各测点不同法线方向的截面应力椭圆。测量结果表明,在井下约520 m深度,最大主应力量值约为17～21 MPa,属于中等应力水平。最大主应力方向分为NNW～NNE和NE～WE两组,与区域应力场基本吻合,但又表现出新的趋势方向,其原因可能是受三矿区内两条断裂的影响。部分测点最大主应力倾角超过20°,最大达-49°,以水平应力为主的矿区应力场特征发生改变。研究结果对矿山设计及施工具有重要意义。     

南迦巴瓦地区地应力场估算与构造稳定性探讨

南迦巴瓦地区是喜马拉雅东构造结新构造活动最为强烈的区域,晚第四纪活动断裂发育,地震活动强烈,嘉黎断裂带、东久-米林断裂带及墨脱断裂带等活动断裂构造稳定性直接影响该地区工程规划建设。地应力是区域构造稳定性评价的关键性参数,当前,关于南迦巴瓦地区地应力场研究成果相对缺乏,难以满足交通廊道地质安全风险评价实际需求。基于震源机制解数据,采用应力张量反演方法,揭示南迦巴瓦地区构造应力场最大主应力方向;依据断层滑动失稳临界地应力条件,联合应力形因子和断层摩擦系数反演,估算南迦巴瓦周边不同区域地应力绝对大小。结果表明：南迦巴瓦地区现今地应力场最大主应力方向为北东至北北东向;最大、最小水平主应力大小随深度线性增加梯度分别为0.032～0.0355 MPa/m、0.0227～0.0236 MPa/m,存在非均匀特征,估测结果与原位地应力实测值一致性较好;在当前地应力环境下,南迦巴瓦周边地区主要活动断裂局部段落存在较大的地震危险性。研究成果可为南迦巴瓦地区工程规划建设提供参考。     

Tectonic and lithological constraints on the evolution of the Karoo graben of northern Malawi (East Africa)

The results of a lithostratigraphic, tectonic and kinematic study of the Karoo deposits of northern Malawi are reported. The objective of the lithostratigraphic study is to correlate the deposits of the Karoo basins of northern Malawi with the well-known deposits of southern Tanzania, thus establishing a stratigraphic framework through which the timing of faulting can be constrained. The kinematic analysis of faulting constrains the opening direction for the Karoo graben in this area and provides basic data to discuss the Karoo graben development within the regional tectonic framework of south-eastern Africa. The studied adults are defined by moderately to steeply dipping cataclastic zones with a width of up to 15 m and are characterized by an array of slickensided fault surfaces with different orientations and slip directions. In this study, small faults (offset < 10 m) and meso-scale faults (offset > 10 m, but generally not exceeding 30–40 m) have been distinguished. Methods used to analyse the kinematic data include the ‘pressure tension’ (PT) method, which estimates the principal axes for the bulk brittle strain, and the internal rotation axis (IRA) method, which estimates the axis of bulk internal rotation and the overall sense of slip at the faults. A mass balance calculation reveals a volume increase of up to 16% during cataclastic deformation in the fault zones. The PT method shows an approximately east trending extension direction for faults that occur only in the latest Carboniferous (?) and Early Permian strata, whereas the fault kinematics from faults that cut middle Permian to Early Triassic rocks is characterized by a ESE to SE trending extension direction. The small faults yield essentially the same kinematic results as the meso-scale faults. In a transport-parallel cross-sectional view, the principal extension axes are at an acute angle of approximately 60° to the major fault planes. Given the moderate fault density, the relatively high angle between the orientation of the principal extension axis and the fault planes suggest only a moderate amount of horizontal extension across the Karoo graben of northern Malawi. Riedel structures in the fault zones formed within two conjugate sets of localized shear zones; slip on one set was top to the W/NW and, on the other, top to the E/SE. The two conjugate sets of Riedel structures have an acute angle about the regional shortening axes, implying that no pronounced rotation of the strain axes occurred. The internal rotation axes for the Riedel structures reveal a largely bimodal distribution and inferred weakly monoclinic to orthorhombic symmetry. Therefore the overall deformation during Karoo rifting in northern Malawi is interpreted to be close to a coaxial deformation with a limited amount of horizontal extension.[/p]     

福建漳州盆地活动断裂研究

本文从形态学和运动学的角度,确定并系统地研究了二十条主要活动断裂。北西向断裂以正-左行走滑型为主,北东向断裂以右行走滑-逆断层为主,两组断裂构成活动断裂网络。用 C¹⁴年龄数据计算得到了最近5990—1870年以来,各取样点地壳平均升降速率的变化范围是+3.53mm/a 至-0.65mm/a。用布仑法求得的九龙江活动断裂现代平均滑动速率是1.7mm/a。更新世至现代构造应力场的最大主压应力是以缓倾角、走向为 NW290°左右为特征的。350m 深处最大主压应力是700—760bar。两组断裂交汇形成的高渗透率带,对形成对流型中、低温热水型热田是十分有利的。此外,对该区的地震活动性亦进行了讨论。     

基于断层擦痕侧伏角公式的构造应力张量反演

利用Aleksandrowski推导的断层擦痕侧伏角公式,提出了一种改进的构造应力张量反演法。根据不同应力比值下构造应力与断层擦痕侧伏角的关系,利用最小二乘法,详细推导了构造应力张量的反演方法,最后利用Matlab软件编制程序实现了该计算过程。在此基础上,现场调查了江西武山铜矿北矿带的断层滑动数据,利用上述改进方法反演了该地区的构造应力张量方向特征。将上述反演结果与由震源机制解获得的最新构造应力场结果进行对比分析,并结合研究区断层的展布特征及所在的地质构造背景,获得了该地区自晚侏罗世以来的构造应力场特征,表明该地区构造应力场具有一定的稳定性。改进后的构造应力张量求解过程及工程应用表明,将Aleksandrowski的图示法和Etchecopar等的反演法结合起来反演构造应力张量,是对已有方法的改进,具有更加简单、实现容易等特点,计算结果比较符合实际。     

A computerized method to estimate friction coefficient from orientation distribution of meso-scale faults

The friction coefficient controls the brittle strength of the Earth’s crust for deformation recorded by faults. This study proposes a computerized method to determine the friction coefficient of meso-scale faults. The method is based on the analysis of orientation distribution of faults, and the principal stress axes and the stress ratio calculated by a stress tensor inversion technique. The method assumes that faults are activated according to the cohesionless Coulomb’s failure criterion, where the fluctuations of fluid pressure and the magnitude of differential stress are assumed to induce faulting. In this case, the orientation distribution of fault planes is described by a probability density function that is visualized as linear contours on a Mohr diagram. The parametric optimization of the function for an observed fault population yields the friction coefficient. A test using an artificial fault-slip dataset successfully determines the internal friction angle (the arctangent of the friction coefficient) with its confidence interval of several degrees estimated by the bootstrap resampling technique. An application to natural faults cutting a Pleistocene forearc basin fill yields a friction coefficient around 0.7 which is experimentally predicted by the Byerlee’s law.