Artificial generation of pseudotachylyte using friction welding apparatus: simulation of melting on a fault plane

A 150 μm thick fused layer of rock has been produced by rotating two metadolerite core faces against each other at 3000 r.p.m. under an axial load of 330 kg for 11 s using friction welding apparatus. Scanning electron microscopy and electron microprobe analysis reveal that the melt layer comprises sub-angular to rounded porphyroclasts of clinopyroxene, feldspar and ilmenite (>20 μm diameter), derived from the host metadolerite, set within a silicate glass matrix. Thermal calculations confirm that melting occurred at the rock interface and that mean surface temperatures in excess of 1400°C were attained. The fused layer shows many textural similarities with pseudotachylyte described from fault zones. Morphologically, the fused layer consists of a series of stacks of porphyroclasts welded together by melt to form ‘build-ups’ oriented at right angles to the friction surface. There is also evidence of gouging, ploughing and plucking, as well as transfer and adhesion of material having occurred between the rock faces. The mean surface velocity attained by the metadolerite (0.24 m s⁻¹) and duration of the experiment are comparable with velocities and rise times of typical single jerk earthquakes occurring during stick-slip seismic faulting within brittle crust (i.e. slip rates of 0.1-0.5 m s⁻¹ for, say, 1–10s). In these respects the experiment successfully simulated frictional fusion on a fault plane in the absence of an intergranular fluid. Power dissipation during the experiment was about MW m⁻², comparable only to very low values for earthquakes (e.g. 1–100 MW m⁻² for displacement rates of 0.1-0.5 m s⁻¹ at shear stresses of 100–1000 bars). This indicates that melting on fault planes during earthquakes should be commonplace. Field evidence, however, does not support this contention. Either pseudotachylyte is not being recognized in exhumed ancient seismic fault zones or melting only occurs under very special circumstances.     

断裂岩岩石磁学研究进展

断裂岩的岩石磁学研究可以揭示地震断裂作用的物理和化学环境,对于探讨地震断裂作用机制具有重要作用。本文在断裂岩岩石磁学最新文献的基础上,结合笔者及所在研究团队在龙门山断裂带获得的研究成果,综述了断裂岩的岩石磁学研究进展。大量研究发现断层泥和假玄武玻璃通常具有磁化率值或剩磁强度异常特征。顺磁性矿物在摩擦热或流体作用下形成新的铁磁性矿物是断层泥和假玄武玻璃高磁化率值或高剩磁强度的主要原因;地震断裂摩擦熔融作用中形成的单质铁是假玄武玻璃中高磁化率值或高剩磁强度异常的另一个重要原因。蠕滑断裂和出露于浅地表的断裂带中可见一些具有低磁化率值异常的断层泥,原因可能是流体作用或断裂带未经历高温摩擦热。断裂岩的岩石磁学研究为地震断裂带的应力应变、形成温度、摩擦热效应、流体作用、形成深度和氧化还原特征等提供了重要信息,可用于分析地震断裂的孕震和发震环境。综合岩石磁学测试和微米至纳米尺度的超显微学研究,并辅助地震断裂岩的摩擦实验、高温热模拟实验等研究可以更好地获得断裂岩的岩石磁学信息。     

汶川地震断裂带多次地震活动新证据

虹口乡八角庙出露完整的映秀—北川断裂带剖面断层岩,高分辨率磁化率测试揭示出多个具有高磁化率特征的断层岩带。系统的岩石磁学分析证明一层褐色断层岩相对围岩具有最大的磁化率值,存在新生成的磁铁矿和拥有相似的天然剩磁(NRM)和非磁滞剩磁(ARM)强度衰减过程。高磁化率特征是含铁顺磁性矿物受到断层滑移过程产生摩擦生热作用生成磁铁矿所致。同时断层岩还获得了热剩磁,记录了地震活动磁学信息。结合汶川地震科学钻探项目1号孔(WFSD-1)磁化率和岩石磁学研究结果,说明映秀—北川断裂带包含多层具有高磁化率特征的断层岩,暗示了多次强震的发生。具有高磁化率特征的断层岩可以作为判定地震活动的标志之一。     

Do seismic slip deficits indicate an underestimated earthquake potential along the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault System?

Seismic slip rates of about 0.2 mm yr^?1 calculated from cumulative seismic moments of earthquakes along the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault (VBTF) between the Alps and the Carpathians are very low compared to geologically and geodetically determined slip rates of 1–2 mm yr^?1, proving a significant seismic slip deficit. Additional seismic slip calculations for arbitrarily selected fault sectors reveal large differences along strike ranging from c. 0.02 to 0.5 mm slip yr^?1. As the earthquake frequency distribution suggests seismically coupled deformation, these variations might indicate locked fault segments. Results suggest that (1) the seismic cycle of the VBTF exceeds the length of available seismological observation, and (2) larger earthquakes than those recorded may occur along the fault. Thus, current local seismic hazard estimates, which are solely based on this historical database, probably underestimate the earthquake potential of the fault system.     

Disappearing ink: How pseudotachylytes are lost from the rock record

Melt-origin pseudotachylytes are the most widely accepted feature recording earthquake slip in the fault rock record. However, reports of pseudotachylytes are rare compared to the frequency and distribution of earthquakes in active faults, suggesting melting occurs only under exceptional circumstances and therefore that pseudotachylytes are rarely formed. In this paper, we document the processes whereby pseudotachylytes are overprinted, destroyed and otherwise removed from the rock record. We present examples of recrystallized, altered, and cataclastically and crystal plastically deformed pseudotachylytes from a variety of ancient faults. Based on these observations, we identify characteristics of pseudotachylytes that are resistant to change over geologic time and develop criteria to allow recognition of relict pseudotachylytes. Our results imply that pseudotachylytes are vastly under-reported due to their vulnerability to destruction and the resulting difficulty in identification. As a consequence, the significance of frictional melting is underestimated. The criteria we propose to distinguish relict pseudotachylytes can help to reconcile the observed frequency of earthquakes with the difficulty of demonstrating ancient seismic slip in the rock record.     

Pressure-related feedback processes in the generation of pseudotachylytes

Pseudotachylyte formation is typically viewed as a self-limiting process. Quantitative models have demonstrated that frictional melting is possible at seismic slip rates, but once a thin film of melt forms on a seismic fault plane, the dramatic decrease in fault friction is thought to suppress further melting. Volumes of melt-generated pseudotachylyte observed in field studies, however, are in many cases substantially larger than the amounts of frictional melt predicted by theoretical models. This suggests that previously unrecognized physical processes may enhance melting during seismic slip. Localized decompression at dilational jogs may be one such phenomenon. Transient unloading could play two important roles in the dynamics of pseudotachylyte generation. First, by setting up significant fluid pressure gradients, it would lead to rapid migration of the melt to sites of low pressure, thereby reestablishing frictional contact across the fault surface and favoring further melt generation. Second, at significant depths, sudden depressurization might lead to in situ decompression melting.     

Tectonic structures across the East African Rift based on the source parameters of the 20 May 1990 M7.2 Sudan earthquake

Earthquakes in Kenya are common along the Kenya Rift Valley because of the slow divergent movement of the rift and hydrothermal processes in the geothermal fields. This implies slow but continuous radiation of seismic energy, which relieves stress in the subsurface rocks. On the contrary, the NW-SE trending rift/fault zones such as the Aswa-Nyangia fault zone and the Muglad-Anza-Lamu rift zone are the likely sites of major earthquakes in Kenya and the East African region. These rift/fault zones have been the sites of a number of strong earthquakes in the past such as the M _w = 7.2 southern Sudan earthquake of 20 May 1990 and aftershocks of M _w = 6.5 and 7.1 on 24 May 1990, the 1937 M _s = 6.1 earthquake north of Lake Turkana close to the Kenya-Ethiopian border, and the 1913 M _s = 6.0 Turkana earthquake, among others. Source parameters of the 20 May 1990 southern Sudan earthquake show that this earthquake consists of only one event on a fault having strike, dip, and rake of 315°, 84°, and ?3°. The fault plane is characterized by a left-lateral strike slip fault mechanism. The focal depth for this earthquake is 12.1 km, seismic moment M _o = 7.65 × 10¹⁹ Nm, and moment magnitude, M _w = 7.19 (?7.2). The fault rupture started 15 s earlier and lasted for 17 s along a fault plane having dimensions of ?60 km × 40 km. The average fault dislocation is 1.1 m, and the stress drop, ?σ, is 1.63 MPa. The distribution of historical earthquakes (M _w ≥ 5) from southern Sudan through central Kenya generally shows a NW-SE alignment of epicenters. On a local scale in Kenya, the NW–SE alignment of epicenters is characterized by earthquakes of local magnitude M _l ≤ 4.0, except the 1928 Subukia earthquake (M _s = 6.9) in central Kenya. This NW–SE alignment of epicenters is consistent with the trend of the Aswa-Nyangia Fault Zone, from southern Sudan through central Kenya and further southwards into the Indian Ocean. We therefore conclude that the NW–SE trending rift/fault zones are sites of strong earthquakes likely to pose the greatest earthquake hazard in Kenya and the East African region in general.     

Modeling of strong ground motions for 1991 Uttarkashi, 1999 Chamoli earthquakes, and a hypothetical great earthquake in Garhwal–Kumaun Himalaya

In this study, stochastic finite fault modeling is used to simulate Uttarkashi (1991) and Chamoli (1999) earthquakes using all available source, path, and site parameters available for the region. These two moderate earthquakes are recorded at number of stations of a strong motion network. The predicted peak ground accelerations at these stations are compared with the observed data and the ground motion parameters are constrained. The stress drop of Uttarkashi and Chamoli earthquakes is constrained at 77 and 65?bars, respectively, whereas the quality factor Q _C is 112 $ f^{0.97} $ and 149 $ f^{0.95} $ for these two regions. The high-frequency attenuation parameter Kappa is in the range 0.04?C0.05. The constrained ground motion parameters are then used to simulate Mw 8.5 earthquake in central seismic gap region of Himalaya. Two scenarios are considered with epicenter of future great earthquake at locations of Uttarkashi and Chamoli earthquakes using above constrained parameters. The most vulnerable towns are the towns of Dehradun and Almora where expected PGA is in excess of 600?cm/s² at V_S30 520?m/s when the epicenter of the great earthquake is at the location of Uttarkashi (1991) earthquake. The towns of Shimla and Chandigarh can expect PGA close to 200?cm/s². Whereas when the epicenter of the great earthquake is at the location of Chamoli (1999) earthquake, the towns of Dehradun and Almora can expect PGA of around 500 and 400?cm/s², respectively, at V_S30 620?m/s. The National Capital Region, Delhi can expect accelerations of around 80?cm/s² in both the cases. The PGA contour maps obtained in this study can be used to assess the seismic hazard of the region and identify vulnerable areas in and around central Himalaya from a future great earthquake.     

Ultracataclasis, sintering, and frictional melting in pseudotachylytes from East Greenland

Large volumes of pseudotachylyte (an intrusive, fault-related rock interpreted to form by a combination of cataclasis and melting) occur in Tertiary normal faults and accommodation zones along 400 km of the East Greenland volcanic rifted margin. Analysis of representative pseudotachylyte samples reveals a wide range of mesoscopic and microscopic textures, mineralogies, and chemistries in the aphanitic pseudotachylyte matrix. Three distinct types of pseudotachylyte (referred to as angular, rounded and glassy) are identified based on these characteristics. Angular pseudotachylyte (found primarily in dike-like reservoir zones) is characterized by angular grains visible on all scales, with micron-scale fragments of mica and amphibole. Its matrix is enriched in Fe₂O₃, MgO, and TiO₂ relative to the host rock, with minor increases in CaO, K₂O, and small decreases in Na₂O. Rounded pseudotachylyte is found in reservoir zones, injection veins (pseudotachylyte-filled extension fractures), and fault veins (small faults with pseudotachylyte along their surfaces). It is characterized by smooth-surfaced, compacted grains on microscopic scales, and encloses rounded, interpenetrative lithic clasts on outcrop scale. Its matrix is enriched in Fe₂O₃, MgO, TiO₂, and Al₂O₃ relative to the host rock, with minor depletion in Na₂O and K₂O. Glassy pseudotachylyte is found primarily along fault surfaces. Its matrix is characterized by isotropic, conchoidally fractured material containing microscopic, strain-free amphibole phenocrysts, and is enriched in TiO₂, Al₂O₃, K₂O, Fe₂O₃, MgO, CaO, and Na₂O relative to the host rock. These observations suggest that angular pseudotachylyte was produced by cataclasis, with enrichment in metallic oxides resulting from preferential crushing of mechanically weak amphibole and mica minerals found in the gneissic host rock. Cataclasis and concomitant frictional heating resulted in the textural and chemical modification of angular pseudotachylyte by sintering or melting, producing rounded and glassy pseudotachylyte, respectively. Compositional and textural observations constrain the temperatures reached during frictional heating (700–900°C) which in turn delimit the amount of frictional heat imparted to the pseudotachylytes during slip. Our results suggest that the East Greenland pseudotachylytes formed during small seismic events along faults at shallow crustal levels. Consistent relative ages and widespread occurrence of pseudotachylyte-bearing faults in East Greenland suggest that widespread microseismicity accompanied the early development of this volcanic rifted margin.     

Static stress drop inferred from near-fault parameters for the 1999 Chi–Chi earthquake in Taiwan

In 2001, a special issue of the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (BSSA) featured seismological research for the 1999 Chi–Chi Taiwan earthquake. This study uses source parameters suggested by the first author in this special issue to estimate static stress drop associated with the Chi–Chi earthquake. The waveform simulation method was used to carefully examine these source parameters. The simulation results indicate that source parameters, inferred from near-fault observations, are well determined. According to the rupture area and slip, the static stress drops (Δσ_s) obtained were distributed between a small value of 47 bars near the epicentral region and a much larger value (>200 bars) to the north. Similar trends in dynamic stress drop (Δσ_d) were also recognized by the first author in his paper published in 2001 BSSA special issue. Comparing the Δσ_s with Δσ_d, satisfies the relation Δσ_s/Δσ_d ≈ 1. This relation suggests that fault motion is mostly spent releasing seismic wave energy during the rupture process of the Chi–Chi earthquake. The consistency between static and dynamic stress drops thus provides a measure of energy-moment (E_s/M₀) ratios, which range from 9.0 × 10⁻⁵ to 6.5 × 10⁻⁴. The average E_s/M₀ ratio estimated for the northern portions of the fault is 3.4 × 10⁻⁴, which is about 3 times that of the south. Such a high E_s/M₀ ratio can be interpreted as having low strength in the rupture for the northern portions of the fault, where the fault would release less energy per unit rupture surface to create the new rupture.     

Clay–clast aggregates in fault gouge: An unequivocal indicator of seismic faulting at shallow depths?

A common problem encountered in studies of gouge-bearing natural faults is the difficulty of ascertaining whether the observed gouge was sheared seismically or aseismically; this problem arises because of the scarcity of indicators of fault slip rates for gouge. Recently, clay–clast aggregates (CCAs; a CCA comprises a clastic core mantled by a rim of ultrafine particles) were proposed as a possible indicator of seismic slip in gouge, on the basis of shear experiments on gouge at seismic slip rates. To examine the processes and conditions of CCA formation, we conducted rotary shear experiments on quartz and quartz–bentonite gouges under normal stresses (0.3–3.0 MPa) and slip rates (0.0005–1.3 m s⁻¹), and in both room-humidity (room-dry) and water-saturated (wet) conditions. We found that CCAs could be produced in room-dry gouges even at the lowest slip rates, which are considerably slower than actual seismic slip rates. This finding demonstrates that thermal pressurization and fluidization at elevated temperature during seismic slip are not necessarily needed for the formation of CCAs, contrary to previous views. Given the occurrence of CCAs over a wide range of slip rates, we suggest that the presence of CCAs is not an unequivocal indicator of fault slip at seismic slip rates.     

Characteristics of the 1912 co-seismic rupture along the North Anatolian Fault Zone (Turkey): implications for the expected Marmara earthquake

Evidence of right‐lateral offsets associated with the 1912 earthquake (M_w 7.4) along the North Anatolian Fault (Gaziköy–Saros segment) allow us to survey (using DGPS) the co‐seismic and cumulative slip distribution. The damage distribution and surface breaks related with the earthquake show an elongated zone of maximum intensity (X MSK) parallel to the fault rupture on land but this may extend offshore to the north‐east and south‐west. Detailed mapping of the fault using topographic maps and aerial photographs indicates the existence of pull‐apart basins and pressure ridges. At several localities, the average 1912 offset along strike is 3.5–4 m and cumulative slip is 2–6 times that of individual movement. The fault rupture geometry and slip distribution suggest the existence of three subsegments with a combined total length of 110–120 km, a fault length and maximum slip similar to those of the 1999 Izmit earthquake. The amount of slip at the north‐easternmost section and in the coastal region of the Sea of Marmara reaches an average 4 m, thereby implying the offshore extension of the 1912 rupture. The results suggest that the 1912 event generated up to 150 km of surface faulting, which would imply a M_w 7.2–7.4 earthquake and which, added with rupture lengths of the 1999 earthquakes, help to constrain the remaining seismic gap in the Sea of Marmara.     

Acceleration response spectra for the earthquakes of the southwestern flank of the Baikal Rift Zone

The acceleration response spectra of earthquakes with M = 4–6.5 in the southwestern part of the Baikal Rift Zone have been studied. The absorption properties of the medium and the attenuation of seismic signals in the study area were determined. Average acceleration response spectra were obtained for regional earthquakes. A comparative analysis of the acceleration response spectra was made for earthquake focal mechanisms with different senses of motion: reverse fault, reverse slip, strike slip, and oblique slip. The effect of the sense of fault motion in the seismic source on acceleration response spectra was determined.     

Paradoxical pseudotachylyte – Fault melt outside the seismogenic zone

Fault generated melt, pseudotachylyte, is an established indicator of palaeoseismic faulting. The existing consensus that frictionally induced melting occurs within the classic seismogenic zone contrast the contention over how pseudotachylyte forms within the ductile regime. Central to this issue is whether all pseudotachylyte originates as pressure-dependent frictional melt along slip surfaces, or if pressure-independent processes have roles in its formation. Propagation of high-velocity slip into deeper crustal levels provides a satisfactory explanation for pseudotachylyte at depth, but does not of itself rationalize earthquake nucleation outside the classic seismogenic zone. Pseudotachylyte from the Minas Fault Zone, Nova Scotia, Canada is used to demonstrate the formation and preservation of fault-related melt under lower crustal conditions. Microstructures retain evidence of intense dislocation glide with minimal climb, and ductile disaggregation of the host; the latter are consistent with intracrystalline deformation in the Peierls stress-controlled glide regime. It remains unclear whether the crystal plasticity serves only as a precursory stage to rupture and high-velocity slip or is itself responsible for both instability and the thermal transient. There are similarities between accelerating plastic slip leading to rupture and aseismic creep bursts (tremor) that emphasize the mechanistic complexity of deep faulting, and the need to extend consideration beyond that of a simple brittle-ductile response. The occurrence of tremor bursts fall within the depth range of “paradoxical” pseudotachylyte and provides a circumstantial link between active tectonics and the geologic record that merits examination.     

Teleseismic finite-fault inversion of two <Emphasis Type="Italic">M</Emphasis><Subscript>w</Subscript> = 6.4 earthquakes along the East Anatolian Fault Zone in Turkey: the 1998 Adana and 2003 Bingöl earthquakes

The East Anatolian Fault Zone is a continental transform fault accommodating westward motion of the Anatolian fault. This study aims to investigate the source properties of two moderately large and damaging earthquakes which occurred along the transform fault in the last two decades using the teleseismic broadband P and SH body waveforms. The first earthquake, the 27 June 1998 Adana earthquake, occurred beneath the Adana basin, located close to the eastern extreme of Turkey’s Mediterranean coast. The faulting associated with the 1998 Adana earthquake is unilateral to the NE and confined to depths below 15 km with a length of 30 km along the strike (53°) and a dipping of 81° SE. The fixed-rake models fit the data less well than the variable-rake model. The main slip area centered at depth of about 27 km and to the NE of the hypocenter, covering a circular area of 10 km in diameter with a peak slip of about 60 cm. The slip model yields a seismic moment of 3.5?×?10¹⁸ N-m (M_w???6.4). The second earthquake, the 1 May 2003 Bingöl earthquake, occurred along a dextral conjugate fault of the East Anatolian Fault Zone. The preferred slip model with a seismic moment of 4.1?×?10¹⁸ N-m (M_w???6.4) suggests that the rupture was unilateral toward SE and was controlled by a failure of large asperity roughly circular in shape and centered at a depth of 5 km with peak displacement of about 55 cm. Our results suggest that the 1998 Adana earthquake did not occur on the mapped Göksun Yakap?nar Fault Zone but rather on a SE dipping unmapped fault that may be a split fault of it and buried under the thick (about 6 km) deposits of the Adana basin. For the 2003 Bingöl earthquake, the final slip model requires a rupture plane having 15° different strike than the most possible mapped fault.     

Late-Quaternary Slip Rate and Seismic Activity of the Xianshuihe Fault Zone in Southwest China

The Xianshuihe fault zone is a seismo-genetic fault zone of left-lateral slip in Southwest China. Since 1725, a total of 59 Ms ≥ 5.0 earthquakes have occurred along this fault zone, including 18 Ms 6.0–6.9 and eight Ms ≥ 7.0 earthquakes. The seismic risk of the Xianshuihe fault zone is a large and realistic threat to the western Sichuan economic corridor. Based on previous studies, we carried out field geological survey and remote sensing interpretation in the fault zone. In addition, geophysical surveys, trenching and age-dating were conducted in the key parts to better understand the geometry, spatial distribution and activity of the fault zone. We infer to divide the fault zone into two parts: the northwest part and the southeast part, with total eight segments. Their Late Quaternary slip rates vary in a range of 11.5 mm/a –(3±1) mm/a. The seismic activities of the Xianshuihe fault zone are frequent and strong, periodical, and reoccurred. Combining the spatial and temporal distribution of the historical earthquakes, the seismic hazard of the Xianshuihe fault zone has been predicted by using the relationship between magnitude and frequency of earthquakes caused by different fault segments. The prediction results show that the segment between Daofu and Qianning has a possibility of Ms ≥ 7.0 earthquakes, while the segment between Shimian and Luding is likely to have earthquakes of about Ms 7.0. It is suggested to establish a GPS or In SAR-based real-time monitoring network of surface displacement to cover the Xianshuihe fault zone, and an early warning system of earthquakes and post seismic geohazards to cover the major residential areas.     

Seismic slip rates,potential subsurface rupture areas and seismic potential of the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault

The Vienna Basin Transfer Fault (VBTF) is a slow active fault with moderate seismicity (I _max~8–9, M _max~5.7) passing through the most vulnerable regions of Austria and Slovakia. We use different data to constrain the seismic potential of the VBTF including slip values computed from the seismic energy release during the 20th century, geological data on fault segmentation and a depth-extrapolated 3-D model of a generalized fault surface, which is used to define potential rupture zones. The seismic slip of the VBTF as a whole is in the range of 0.22–0.31 mm/year for a seismogenic fault thickness of 8 km. Seismic slip rates for individual segments vary from 0.00 to 0.77 mm/year. Comparing these data to geologically and GPS-derived slip velocities (>1 mm/year) proofs that the fault yields a significant seismic slip deficit. Segments of the fault with high seismic slip contrast from segments with no slip representing locked segments. Fault surfaces of segments within the seismogenic zone (4–14 km depth) vary from 55 to 400 km². Empirical scaling relations show that these segments are sufficiently large to explain both, earthquakes observed in the last centuries, and the 4th century Carnuntum earthquake, for which archeo-seismological data suggest a magnitude of M ≥ 6. Based on the combination of all data (incomplete earthquake catalog, seismic slip deficits, locked segments, potential rupture areas, indications of strong pre-catalog earthquakes) we argue, that the maximum credible earthquake for the VBTF is in the range M _max = 6.0–6.8, significantly larger than the magnitude of the strongest recorded events (M = 5.7).     

2012年缅甸德贝金M7.0地震及其地表破裂特征

文章以地质地貌与地震遗迹野外调查获得的第一手资料为基础,重点介绍了实皆断裂的活动习性、2012年地震产生的建筑物破坏与地震地表破裂带特征.实皆断裂是一条规模宏大,以右旋走滑为主的全新世活动断裂,其水平滑动速率为18～20 mm/a.历史上沿实皆断裂曾发生10余次7级以上强震,迄今保留有1839年曼德勒因瓦M 8、193...     

Seismotectonics of the 2008 and 2009 Qaidam Earthquakes and its Implication for Regional Tectonics

Three magnitude >6 earthquakes struck Qaidam, Qinghai province, China, in November 10th 2008, August 28th and 31st 2009 respectively. The Zongwulongshan fault has often been designated as the active seismogenic structure, although it is at odd with the data. Our continuous GPS station (CGPS), the Xiao Qaidam station, located in the north of the Qaidam basin, is less than 30 km to the southwest of the 2008 earthquake. This CGPS station recorded the near field co-seismic deformation. Here we analyzed the co-seismic dislocation based on the GPS time series and the rupture processes from focal mechanism for the three earthquakes. The aftershocks were relocated to constrain the spatial characteristics of the 2008 and 2009 Qaidam earthquakes. Field geological and geomorphological investigation and interpretation of satellite images show that the Xitieshan fault and Zongwulongshan fault were activated as left lateral thrust during the late Quaternary. Evidence of folding can also be identified. Integrated analyses based on our data and the regional tectonic environment show that the Xitieshan fault is the fault responsible for the 2008 Qaidam earthquake, which is a low dip angle thrust with left lateral strike slip. The Zongwulongshan fault is the seismogenic fault of the 2009 earthquakes, which is a south dipping back thrust of the northern marginal thrust system of the Qaidam basin. Folding takes a significant part of the deformation in the northern marginal thrust system of the Qaidam basin, dominating the contemporary structure style of the northern margin of the Qaidam basin and Qilianshan tectonic system. In this region, this fault and fold system dominates the earthquake activities with frequent small magnitude earthquakes.     

Coseismic landslides triggered by the 8th August 2017 <Emphasis Type="Italic">M</Emphasis><Subscript>s</Subscript> 7.0 Jiuzhaigou earthquake (Sichuan,China): factors controlling their spatial distribution and implications for the seismogenic blind fault identification

On 8th August 2017, a magnitude M_s 7.0 earthquake struck the County of Jiuzhaigou, in Sichuan Province, China. It was the third M_s ≥?7.0 earthquake in the Longmenshan area in the last decade, after the 2008 M_s 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake and the 2013 M_s 7.0 Lushan earthquake. The event did not produce any evident surface rupture but triggered significant mass wasting. Based on a large set of pre- and post-earthquake high-resolution satellite images (SPOT-5, Gaofen-1 and Gaofen-2) as well as on 0.2-m-resolution UAV photographs, a polygon-based interpretation of the coseismic landslides was carried out. In total, 1883 landslides were identified, covering an area of 8.11 km², with an estimated total volume in the order of 25–30?×?10⁶ m³. The total landslide area was lower than that produced by other earthquakes of similar magnitude with strike-slip motion, possibly because of the limited surface rupture. The spatial distribution of the landslides was correlated statistically to a number of seismic, terrain and geological factors, to evaluate the landslide susceptibility at regional scale and to identify the most typical characteristics of the coseismic failures. The landslides, mainly small-scale rockfalls and rock/debris slides, occurred mostly along two NE-SW-oriented valleys near the epicentre. Comparatively, high landslide density was found at locations where the landform evolves from upper, broad valleys to lower, deep-cut gorges. The spatial distribution of the coseismic landslides did not seem correlated to the location of any known active faults. On the contrary, it revealed that a previously-unknown blind fault segment—which is possibly the north-western extension of the Huya fault—is the plausible seismogenic fault. This finding is consistent with what hypothesised on the basis of field observations and ground displacements.