Measurements of Flows Over Isolated Valleys

Wind-tunnel measurements of the flow over an isolated valley both normal and at an angle (45°) to a simulated neutrally stable atmospheric boundary layer are presented. Attention is concentrated on the nature of the flow within the valley itself. The work formed part of a wider study that included detailed field measurements around an African desert valley and some limited comparisons with that work are included. A scale of about 1:1000 was used for the laboratory work, in which an appropriate combination of hot wire and particle image velocimetry was employed. For a valley normal to the upwind flow, it is shown that the upstream influence of the valley extends to a distance of at least one half of the axial valley width upstream of the leading edge, whereas differences in mean flow and turbulence could be identified well beyond two valley widths from the downwind edge. Non-normal wind angles lead to significant along-valley flows within the valley and, even at two valley heights above the valley ridge level, there remains a significant spanwise flow component. Downwind turbulence levels are somewhat lower in this case, but are still considerably higher than in the undisturbed boundary layer. At both flow angles, there are significant recirculation regions within the valleys, starting from mean separation just beyond the leading edge, but the strong spanwise flow in the 45° case reduces the axial extent of the separated zone. The flow is shown to be in some ways analogous to flow over an isolated hill. Our results usefully enhance the field data and could be used to improve modelling of saltation processes in the field.     

Observations of foehn onset in the Southern Alps, New Zealand

Summary Local scale windfield and air mass characteristics during the onset of two foehn wind events in an alpine hydro-catchment are presented. Grounding of the topographically modified foehn was found to be dependent on daytime surface heating and topographic channelling of flow. The foehn front was observed to advance down-valley until the valley widened significantly. The foehn wind appeared to decouple from the surface downstream of the accelerated flow associated with the valley constriction, and to be lifted above local thermally generated circulations including a lake breeze. Towards evening, the foehn front retreated up valley in response to reduced surface heating and the intrusion into the study area of a deep and cool air mass associated with a regional scale mountain-plain circulation. Differences in the local windfield observed during both case study events reflect the importance of different thermal and dynamic forcings on airflow in complex terrain. These are the result of variation in surface energy exchanges, channelling and blocking of airflow. Observations presented here have both theoretical and applied implications with regard to forecasting foehn onset, wind hazard management, recreational activities and air quality management in alpine settings. Received January 23, 2001 Revised October 17, 2001     

A comparison of wind-tunnel experiments and numerical simulations of neutral and stratified flow over a hill

A comparison is made of numerical and experimental results for flow over two-dimensional hills in both neutral and stably stratified flow. The numerical simulations are carried out using a range of one-and-a-half order and second-order closure schemes. The performance of the various turbulence schemes in predicting both the mean and turbulent quantities over the hill is assessed by comparing the results with new wind-tunnel measurements. The wind-tunnel experiments include both neutral and stably stratified flow over two different hills with different slopes, one of which is steep enough to induce flow separation. The dataset includes measurements of the mean and turbulent parts of the flow using laser Doppler anemometry. Pressure measurements are also made across the surface of the hill. These features make the dataset an excellent test of the model performance. In general second-order turbulence schemes provide the best agreement with the experimental data, however, they can be numerically unstable for steep hills. Some modifications can be made to the standard one-and-a-half order closure scheme, which results in improved performance at a fraction of the computation cost of the second-order schemes.     

Numerical studies on cold fronts Part II: Orographic effects on gravity flows

Summary A two-dimensional nonhydrostatic numerical model was used to investigate the behaviour of a cold air gravity current, moving along complex terrain. It is found, that the model with a high horizontal and vertical resolution and with a closure scheme, using the turbulent kinetic energy, is suitable to simulate currents, which have the main features of those found in laboratory experiments.Simulations are presented for different orographic structures (mountain and valley), for varying thermal stratification of the environmental atmosphere (neutral, stable and stable with an elevated inversion) and for different heights of the cold air reservoir.The major effect of a hill on the advance of a gravity current is a reduction of the front speed upstream as well as (even stronger) downstream of the obstacle, where the amount of this decrease depends on thermal stratification. Near surface blocking of the air flow on the windward side occurs for all simulations. However, for small depths of the oncoming cold air, the current cannot surmount the hill and remains on the lee side.With 11 Figures     

Flow Over Hills with Variable Roughness

The effect of variable roughness length upon the flow characteristics over hills is investigated. The changes considered herein cover a range of flow configurations such as the change from a forested (rough) valley with a moderately smooth hilltop to a grassy valley (smooth) with a “spiky” (rough) mountain top. The effect of moving the roughness with respect to the hill is also considered. Although many of the flow features change when the position of the roughness change is varied with respect to the hill these changes have very little impact upon the global properties used within orographic drag parametrization schemes.     

山谷地形对盛行气流影响的数值模拟

本文考虑的地形为理想的南北向长谷。建立了地形坐标下的二维非静力模式，详细研究了谷地中的风速和风向随盛行气流和谷轴的交角β、谷地的宽度、谷地的深度、谷地的相对深度以及温度层结的变化规律。模式计算的结果与三峡实际观测的统计结果相当一致。     

Orographic and stability effects on valley-side drainage flows

The effects of orography and stability on valley-side drainage winds were investigated with the aid of a numerical model. The model is three-dimensional, non-hydrostatic, cast in terrain-following co-ordinates, has a surface energy budget and a 1.5 order TKE closure scheme. Experiments were conducted over a schematic three-dimensional valley to assess the influences on airflow of valley-side slope magnitude, valley cross-section shape, tilt of the valley floor and stability.In drainage flow, magnitudes of horizontal and vertical velocities and heights of their maxima are directly related to slope angle. The velocities are either insensitive to, or slightly inversely related to stability. The cooling which drives the flows is strongest over steep slopes and in large stabilities. The depth of the cooled layer, whilst increasing over steeper slopes, is inversely related to the stability. TKE increases with slope angle and decreases with increasing stability. In the downslope direction, the near-surface cooled layer significantly increases whereas the inversion intensity decreases by about 20%. These two features are due to mixing between the drainage flow and the overlying air. Tha drainage flow accelerates down the slope until it reaches the accumulated pool of cold air in the valley bottom, whereupon it slows down markedly and is accompanied by uplift over the centre of the valley.The cross-valley circulation is influenced by valley-side slope angle, valley cross-section shape and tilt of the valley floor, in addition to the effects of stability. For a given shape, the circulation is a direct function of the valley-side slope and an inverse function of the ambient stability. This relationship is described mathematically.V-shaped valleys generate stronger flows than doU-shaped valleys and a tilted valley floor also leads to a significant increase in velocities.     

四川盆地西部一次典型连续夜雨的数值模拟

利用中尺度模式WRF研究了2017年7月15-17日发生在四川盆地西部的一次典型连续性夜雨过程的形成机制,重点讨论了"山谷风"局地环流对此次夜雨过程的作用.研究表明:(1)此次降水天气过程主要发生在500 hPa"北高南低"的环流形势背景下,这种背景有利于北方冷空气向南输送;850 hPa上台风东侧的偏南气流和副热带高...     

Comparison of Speed-Up Over Hills Derived from Wind-Tunnel Experiments,Wind-Loading Standards,and Numerical Modelling

We evaluate the accuracy of the speed-up provided in several wind-loading standards by comparison with wind-tunnel measurements and numerical predictions, which are carried out at a nominal scale of 1:500 and full-scale, respectively. Airflow over two- and three-dimensional bell-shaped hills is numerically modelled using the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes method with a pressure-driven atmospheric boundary layer and three different turbulence models. Investigated in detail are the effects of grid size on the speed-up and flow separation, as well as the resulting uncertainties in the numerical simulations. Good agreement is obtained between the numerical prediction of speed-up, as well as the wake region size and location, with that according to large-eddy simulations and the wind-tunnel results. The numerical results demonstrate the ability to predict the airflow over a hill with good accuracy with considerably less computational time than for large-eddy simulation. Numerical simulations for a three-dimensional hill show that the speed-up and the wake region decrease significantly when compared with the flow over two-dimensional hills due to the secondary flow around three-dimensional hills. Different hill slopes and shapes are simulated numerically to investigate the effect of hill profile on the speed-up. In comparison with more peaked hill crests, flat-topped hills have a lower speed-up at the crest up to heights of about half the hill height, for which none of the standards gives entirely satisfactory values of speed-up. Overall, the latest versions of the National Building Code of Canada and the Australian and New Zealand Standard give the best predictions of wind speed over isolated hills.     

A wind tunnel study of turbulent dispersion over two- and three-dimensional gentle hills from upwind point sources in neutral flow

A study of turbulent dispersion over hills for upstream, elevated sources was conducted, based on wind tunnel tracer gas (CO₂) experiments over a gentle 2-D ridge and a 3-D circular hill, both having a cosine-square cross-section. The concentration measurements were made with four different source locations for each hill case (2-D or 3-D), and the study focused on dispersion parameters under the influence of the presence of the hills in order to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms involved.The wind tunnel measurements show that, in the case of gentle hills, the topographic impact on turbulent dispersion from upstream sources is only moderate and is more pronounced for the 3-D than for the 2-D hill. The perturbation in mean flow introduced by the hills, including streamline divergence/convergence, is shown to dominate the changes in the dispersion due to the hills in this case. The plume spread, both in the lateral and the vertical, is enhanced over the upwind hill foot and reduced over the hill top in response to the mean flow slow-down and speed-up at these places, and is further enhanced or reduced due to streamline divergence/convergence in the vertical over the hills as well as in the horizontal over the 3-D hill. These results are also compared with cases of turbulent dispersion over more steep hills (Snyder and Britter, 1987).     

THE STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BOUNDARY LAYER OVER HILL TERRAIN

Taking advantage of the actual continuous materials of hilly area, we analyse the structures of the wind and temperature fields of planetary bounday layer over hill terrain under different weather conditions. As the results show that being similar to the situation in flat area, the planetary boundary layer has striking characteristics of daily variation and distinct regularity. We also find that in certain weather situation or under certain weather condition, these characteristics are principally determined by complex effect of such factors as the features of specific radiation field and intensity of turbulent exchange, and the advection of wind, and the thermodynamic effect of valley or lake-land, and the extending direction of valley, as well as difference between states of sunlessness and sunshine of the surface. Therein, the local environmental situation, where the reference station stands, is of considerable importance to the formation of the characteristics of planetary boundary over hill terrain (shortened as HTBL). These results not only help us to disclose the characteristics of planetary boundary layer over hill terrain in theory, but also are of great value in practice, like developing hilly area, and implementing environment conservation etc.     

峡谷地形对两次大暴雨过程的增幅作用对比分析

利用湖北省加密自动站资料、常规观测资料、逐6h的NCEP／GFS再分析资料以及FY2E红外卫星云图资料,对2012年6月29日、7月4日湖北省两次大暴雨过程中峡谷地形的增幅机制进行对比分析。结果表明：两次过程均在有利的背景场及环境条件下受三峡谷地特殊地形影响而产生,冷暖空气相互对峙并配合峡谷地形的阻挡作用,迫使近地层水平流场、垂直流场发生改变,同时流入峡谷的地面气流与复杂地形相互作用,在峡谷内产生局地气旋性小环流或气流汇合区,地形性涡旋的生成对降水增幅起到关键作用;两次过程的不同之处是,前一过程中,冷空气作用更显著、不稳定能量累积更多、峡谷地形增幅作用更复杂,其中包括狭管效应、喇叭口效应及迎风坡地形效应,所以其降水效率更高、雨强更大。     

2D Airflow over a Double Bell-Shaped Mountain

Summary. ?The airflow over an idealized orography with two mountain peaks and a valley between is investigated using a non-linear numerical model. The flow is assumed to be two-dimensional and nonrotational. Surface friction is neglected. This setup is a first step in studying the modifications a finely structured “real” topography introduces to the well-studied flow over one isolated obstacle. The sensitivity of the flow behavior to the valley width is examined for the case of specified mountain volume as well as constant non-dimensional mountain height. Flow patterns for linear, weakly nonlinear, wave breaking and upstream blocking cases are examined. Whereas the nondimensional mountain height is still the main measure of the nonlinearity of the flow, the differing steepness of upslope and downslope caused by the separating valley, strengthens nonlinear effects. It also modifies wave breaking and upstream blocking. For wide enough valleys wave breaking regions can form above both peaks. Received January 20, 1999/Revised June 28, 1999     

The Askervein hill project: A finite control volume prediction of three-dimensional flows over the hill

A three-dimensional nonlinear numerical model, that has been extensively used previously to predict environmental water flows, was applied to predict the flow over an isolated hill, Askervein. Predictions are reported for winds approaching the hill from 210 ° and 180 ° clockwise from north, both under almost neutral atmospheric conditions.The model predictions were compared with data collected during a major field study in 1983. From the comparisons it was concluded that the model predicts the mean flow variables with good accuracy. Larger discrepancies were found for quantities related to the turbulence, pointing to deficiencies in the turbulence model, and perhaps in some of the measurements.     

Some observations of airflow over a large hill of moderate slope

Measurements are presented of mean windspeed and turbulence over Great Dun Fell, which is rather larger than hills investigated in the past, viz., 847 m high, which is comparable to the boundary-layer depth. The Fell is well suited for study, being covered by rough grass with no trees and few other obstructions. It was found that the speed-up of the wind is dominated by the elevated stratification and generally agrees closely with the predictions of the model of Carruthers and Choularton (1982) except when the flow is blocked. On the hill summit, the turbulence is approximately in local equilibrium in at least the lowest 10 m and the turbulence measurements are similar to those obtained within the inner layer at other sites. The transverse and longitudinal components show spectral lags at wavelengths greater than 30 m. This suggests an inner-layer depth of about 1/3 that predicted by Jackson and Hunt (1975). At reduced frequencies (>0.1), a recovery in spectral energy is observed due to gravity wave activity. A large variation in the streamline tilt at the summit is observed depending on whether the airflow regime is supercritical or subcritical.     

Numerical analysis of flux footprints for different landscapes

Summary A model for the canopy – planetary boundary layer flow and scalar transport based on E- closure was applied to estimate footprint for CO₂ fluxes over different inhomogeneous landscapes. Hypothetical heterogeneous vegetation patterns – forest with clear-cuts as well as hypothetical heterogeneous relief – a bell-shaped valley and a ridge covered by forest were considered. The distortions of airflow caused by these heterogeneities are shown – the upwind deceleration of the flow at the ridge foot and above valley, acceleration at the crest and the flow separation with the reversed flow pattern at lee slopes of ridge and valley. The disturbances induce changes in scalar flux fields within the atmospheric surface layer comparing to fluxes for homogeneous conditions: at a fixed height the fluxes vary as a function of distance to disturbance. Correspondingly, the flux footprint estimated from model data depends on the location of the point of interest (flux measurement point) and may significantly deviate from that for a flat terrain. It is shown that proposed method could be used for the choice of optimal sensor position for flux measurements over complex terrain as well as for the interpretation of data for existing measurement sites. To illustrate the latter the method was applied for experimental site in Solling, Germany, taking into account the complex topography and vegetation heterogeneities. Results show that in certain situations (summer, neutral stratification, south or north wind) and for a certain sensor location the assumptions of idealized air flow structure could be used for measurement interpretation at this site, though in general, extreme caution should be applied when analytical footprint models are used in the interpretation of flux measurements over complex sites.     

On the wind field in the Loisach valley — Numerical simulation and comparison with the LOWEX III data

Summary A three-dimensional nonhydrostatic model, forced by a surface energy budget, has been used to study thermally induced circulation in mountainous terrain. The numerical results were compared with observed wind data of the LOWEX-Experiment realized in the Loisach valley near Garmisch. Although the qualitative agreement in space and time is reasonable, the model underpredicts especially the valley wind by a factor of two. The complex structure of the simulated airflow in this region illustrates the difficulties of field experiments to find out the main characteristics of such circulations. In two sensitivity studies, the effect of the size of the integration region and the effect of a slight variation in direction of the larger scale wind is discussed.With 18 Figures     

Results from the MERKUR experiment: Mass budget and vertical motions in a large valley during mountain and valley wind

Summary Based on measurements made in March 1982 in the Inn valley during the MERKUR experiment, an attempt was made to compute the mass budget of a large alpine valley during periods of mountain and valley wind.The computations come from measurements of the alongvalley mass flux and assumptions on the fluxes in the slope layer and tributaries.Vertical motions in the valley's atmosphere have been evaluated from the mass budget computations. These motions, including the subsidence which compensates for daytime upslope winds and the subsidence which compensates for the valley wind flowing into tributaries during the day, are of great importance for the understanding of the thermal circulation.The results allow better estimation of vertical advection, which contributes to the budgets of momentum and energy.With 8 Figures     

Some effects of deforestation on nocturnal drainage flow and local climate — A numerical study

The three-dimensional mesoscale model FITNAH has been modified to simulate effects of a tall tree canopy on airflow in complex terrain. Numerical experiments show the general features of meteorological variables inside a plant stand with low wind speeds and a nearly neutral thermal stratification during night. Available observations from the Finkenbach valley and the simulated temperatures near the ground show good agreeement.Comparison of model results for a nighttime situation for cases with and without a canopy (after complete deforestation) leads to the main results, viz., that surface wind speed will increase and the atmosphere near the ground will become colder after deforestation.However, the production rate of cooled air (expressed in m³m^–2h^–1) decreases; that means that forested slopes are more effective in ventilating a city than slopes covered with short vegetation.     

A wind tunnel study of turbulent flow over model hills

Detailed wind tunnel measurements have been made of mean flow and turbulence over a two-dimensional ridge and a circular hill, both having cosine-squared cross-section and maximum slope about 15 °. The measurements were made in an artificially thickened neutrally stratified boundary layer, and have been compared with results from linear models and rapid distortion theory as appropriate.Our study shows that linear theory gives generally good predictions of the mean flow on the upwind side of the hills, and especially of the flow speedup at the hill top, but that the turbulence is less well predicted. In particular, the measurements show a major increase in the vertical component of turbulence and in the shear stress on the upwind slope of both the two- and three-dimensional hills which is not predicted by either equilibrium or isotropic rapid-distortion theories, although this may be partly due to the effect of streamline curvature. Rapid-distortion theory is successful only in describing the streamwise component of turbulence in the outer region of the flow, while in the upper part of the inner region of the flow, the turbulence measurements show disagreement with both the equilibrium and the rapid-distortion theories. Our experiments also confirm that the equilibrium region is a very thin layer close to the surface, while above this region and below the outer region, there is a transitional region where all terms in the stress equation are important.The measurements over the three-dimensional hill suggest that the mean flow and turbulence are broadly similar to those over the two-dimensional ridge, but with reduced perturbation amplitudes. The major differences between the two cases are found on the upwind slope and in the wake where, respectively, horizontal divergence and convergence of the three-dimensional flow are most pronounced.