长白山火山1000年前火山泥流堆积及其灾害

长白山火山１０００年前大喷发,火山泥流堆积物沿松花江中上游分布。距火山较近的是火山泥流的岩屑流堆积,远离火山变为火山泥流的超高密度流堆积。探讨了火山泥流的成因,并指出长白山火山一旦再次爆发,火山泥流将是主要的火山灾害,沿松花江中上游可能造成巨大破坏,并可能危及鸭绿江、图们江中、上游。     

Seismological constraints on the 2018 Mt. Etna (Italy) flank eruption and implications for the flank dynamics of the volcano

3D earthquake locations, focal mechanisms and stress tensor distribution in a 16‐month interval covering the 2018 Mt. Etna flank eruption, enabled us to investigate the relationship between magma intrusion and structural response of the volcano and shed light on the dynamic processes affecting the instability of Mt. Etna. The magma intrusion likely caused tension in the flanks of the volcano, leading to significant ground deformation and redistribution of stress on the neighbouring faults at the edge of Mt. Etna's unstable sector, encouraging the ESE sliding of the eastern flank of the volcano. Accordingly, FPSs of the post‐eruptive events show strike slip faulting mechanisms, under a stress regime characterized by a maximum compressive σ₁, NE‐SW oriented. In this perspective, any flank eruption could temporarily enhance the sliding process of both the southern and eastern flanks of the volcano.     

From sink to volcanic source: Unravelling missing terrestrial eruption records by characterization and high‐resolution chronology of lacustrine volcanic density flow deposits,Lake Inawashiro‐ko,Fukushima, Japan

Eruption records in the terrestrial stratigraphy are often incomplete due to erosion after tephra deposition, limited exposure and lack of precise dating owing to discontinuity of strata. A lake system and sequence adjacent to active volcanoes can record various volcanic events such as explosive eruptions and subaqueous density flows being extensions of eruption triggered and secondary triggered lahars. A lacustrine environment can constrain precise ages of such events because of constant and continuous background sedimentation. A total of 71 subaqueous density flow deposits in a 28 m long core from Lake Inawashiro‐ko reveals missing terrestrial volcanic activity at Adatara and Bandai volcanoes during the past 50 kyr. Sedimentary facies, colour, grain size, petrography, clay mineralogy, micro X‐ray fluorescence analysis and chemistry of included glass shards characterize the flow event deposits and clarify their origin: (i) clay‐rich grey hyperpycnites, extended from subaerial cohesive lahars at Adatara volcano, with sulphide/sulphate minerals and high sulphur content which point to a source from hydrothermally altered material ejected by phreatic eruptions; and (ii) clay‐rich brown density flow deposits, induced by magmatic hydrothermal eruptions and associated edifice collapse at Bandai volcano, with the common presence of fresh juvenile glass shards and low‐grade hydrothermally altered minerals; whereas (iii) non‐volcanic turbidites are limited to the oldest large slope failure and the 2011 Tohoku‐oki earthquake events. The high‐resolution chronology of volcanic activity during the last 50 kyr expressed by lacustrine event deposits shows that phreatic eruption frequency at Adatara has roughly tripled and explosive eruptions at Bandai have increased by ca 50%. These results challenge hikers, ski‐fields and downstream communities to re‐evaluate the increased volcanic risks from more frequent eruptions and far‐reaching lahars, and demonstrate the utility of lahar and lacustrine volcanic density flow deposits to unravel missing terrestrial eruption records, otherwise the recurrence rate may be underestimated at many volcanoes.     

Merapi (Java,Indonesia): anatomy of a killer volcano

Merapi is Indonesia's most dangerous volcano with a history of deadly eruptions. Over the past two centuries, the volcanic activity has been dominated by prolonged periods of lava dome growth and intermittent gravitational or explosive dome failures to produce pyroclastic flows every few years. Explosive eruptions, such as in 2010, have occurred occasionally during this period, but were more common in pre‐historical time, during which a collapse of the western sector of the volcano occurred at least once. Variations in magma supply from depth, magma ascent rates and the degassing behaviour during ascent are thought to be important factors that control whether Merapi erupts effusively or explosively. A combination of sub‐surface processes operating at relatively shallow depth inside the volcano, including complex conduit processes and the release of carbon dioxide into the magmatic system through assimilation of carbonate crustal rocks, may result in unpredictable explosive behaviour during periods of dome growth. Pyroclastic flows generated by gravitational or explosive lava dome collapses and subsequent lahars remain the most likely immediate hazards near the volcano, although the possibility of more violent eruptions that affect areas farther away from the volcano cannot be fully discounted. In order to improve hazard assessment during future volcanic crises at Merapi, we consider it crucial to improve our understanding of the processes operating in the volcano's plumbing system and their surface manifestations, to generate accurate hazard zonation maps that make use of numerical mass flow models on a realistic digital terrain model, and to utilize probabilistic information on eruption recurrence and inundation areas.     

On thermochemical mantle plumes with an intermediate thermal power that erupt on the Earth’s surface

The relative plume thermal power Ka = N/N₁ is used (N is the thermal power transferred from the plume base to its conduit and N₁ is the thermal power transferred from the plume conduit into the surrounding mantle in the steady-state heat conduction regime). Thermochemical mantle plumes with small (Ka < 1.15) and intermediate (1.15 < Ka < 1.9) thermal powers are formed at the core–mantle boundary beneath cratons in the absence of horizontal free-convection mantle flows beneath them, or in the presence of weak horizontal mantle flows. Thermochemical plumes reach the Earth’s surface when their relative thermal power is Ka > 1.15. The thermal and hydrodynamical structure of the plume conduit ascending from the core–mantle interface to the level from which the magmatic melt erupts on the Earth’s surface is presented. The model of two-stage eruption of the melt from the plume conduit to the surface is considered. The critical height of the massif above the plume roof, at which the eruption conduit supplying magmatic melt to the surface forms, is determined. The volume of melt erupting through the eruption conduit to the surface is estimated. The dependence of depth Δx from which the melt is transported to the surface on the plume diameter for a kinematic viscosity of ν = 0.5–2 m²/s is presented. In the case when the value Δx is larger than the depth starting from which diamond is stable (150 km), the melt from the plume conduit can transport diamonds to the Earth’s surface. The melt flow in the eruption conduit is considered as a turbulent flow in a cylindrical duct. The velocity of the melt flow in the eruption conduit and the time for the melt to be transported to the surface from a depth of Δx = 150 km for a kinematic viscosity of the melt in the eruption conduit ν_v = 0.01–1 m²/s are determined. Tangential stress on the eruption conduit sidewall is estimated in cases of melt flow both in smooth and rough conduits.     

The spatial and temporal distribution of grain‐size breaks in turbidites

Grain‐size breaks are surfaces where abrupt changes in grain size occur vertically within deposits. Grain‐size breaks are common features in turbidites around the world, including ancient and modern systems. Despite their widespread occurrence, grain‐size breaks have been regarded as exceptional, and not included within idealized models of turbidity current deposition. This study uses ca 100 shallow sediment cores, from the Moroccan Turbidite System, to map out five turbidite beds for distances in excess of 2000 km. The vertical and spatial distributions of grain‐size breaks within these beds are examined. Five different types of grain‐size break are found: Type I – in proximal areas between coarse sand and finer grained structureless sand; Type II – in proximal areas between inversely graded sand overlain by finer sand; Type III – in proximal areas between sand overlain by ripple cross‐laminated finer sand; Type IV – throughout the system between clean sand and mud; and Type V – in distal areas between mud‐rich (debrite) sand and mud. This article interprets Types I and V as being generated by sharp vertical concentration boundaries, controlled by sediment and clay concentrations within the flows, whilst Types II and III are interpreted as products of spatial/temporal fluctuations in flow capacity. Type IV are interpreted as the product of fluid mud layers, which hinder the settling of non‐cohesive grains and bypasses them down slope. Decelerating suspensions with sufficient clay will always form cohesive layers near to bed, promoting the generation of Type IV grain‐size breaks. This may explain why Type IV grain‐size breaks are widespread in all five turbidites examined and are commonplace within turbidite sequences studied elsewhere. Therefore, Type IV grain‐size breaks should be understood as the norm, not the exception, and regarded as a typical feature within turbidite beds.     

云南腾冲大六冲火山机构的发现及意义

腾冲火山群位于我国云南省西部和缅甸交界处的腾冲县境内,是我国著名的第四纪火山群,既有黑空山、打鹰山、马鞍山等一系列晚第四纪新期火山,也有早更新世以来有过喷发活动的大六冲、余家大山、来凤山等老火山。其中,位于腾冲火山区中东部的大六冲山势高峻,其顶峰是本区内的最高峰。野外地质调查发现,大六冲山体由一系列巨厚层爆发相火山碎屑堆积物和少量溢流相熔岩类岩石构成,喷发物类型极其丰富。在大六冲最高峰以南约100m处,首次发现存在着一个直径超百米的火山通道,可能是区内早期火山喷发的主通道,火山颈、熔岩穹丘、岩墙、爆发相与溢出相堆积物构成了大六冲完整的火山机构,在其周边多处地方还发现了因山体岩石破碎后形成的垮塌和滑坡堆积物。大六冲火山机构及其滑塌物的发现,不仅可以解释腾冲火山区大范围分布的火山碎屑岩的来源,也为防治以后类似大规模喷发可能造成的次生地质灾害提供了理想的研究样本和未来灾害预警。     

Study of Distal Pyroclastic-flow Stratum from Tianchi Volcano in 1215 (±15) Eruption: Pyroclastic-flow Over Water

In this paper,we describe three strata at the distal part of the pyroclastic-flow from the Tianchi volcano in 1215(±15) eruption.One of the strata with crosslayers that are different from typical pyroclastic-flow strata may come from a ground-surge.The grain-size and scanning electron microscopy(SEM) analysis was performed to study the origin of the pyroclastic-flow.Characteristics of grain-size distribution show that it is similar with the ash cloud.Through the SEM analyses,we found some quench structures with less damage on the surfaces of the vitric pumices.These phenomena indicate that there has been hydration in the transportation processes at the distal of pyroclastic-flow.It has partly changed the transportation mechanism of pyroclastic-flow,which transitions form dense flow to diluted flow.This paper develops a new distal pyroclastic-flow model in the Tianchi volcano that can be divided into three stages,i.e.the quench stage,expanding stage and depositing stage.     

Exploring lava‐flow hazards at Pico Island,Azores Archipelago (Portugal)

Pico, the youngest island of the Azores Archipelago (Portugal), is characterized by a central volcano and a 30‐km‐long fissure zone. Its eruption rate is the highest of the Azores islands, with more than 35 eruptions in the last 2000 years. Here, we estimate the lava‐flow hazard for Pico Island by combining the vent opening probability derived from the spatial distribution of eruptive fissures, the classes of expected eruptions inferred from the physical and chemical characteristics of historical eruptions, and the lava‐flow paths simulated by the MAGFLOW model. The most likely area to host new eruptions is along a WNW–ESE trend centred on the central volcano, with the highest hazard affecting the two main residential zones of Lajes do Pico and Madalena. Our analysis is the first attempt to assess the lava‐flow hazard for Pico Island, and may have important implications for decision‐making in territorial management and future land‐use planning.     

Evolution of the middle Proterozoic Chandabooka Caldera,Gawler range acid volcano‐plutonic province,South Australia

Volcanism associated with the middle Proterozoic Gawler Range acid volcano‐plutonic province was initiated in the Kokatha area by the construction on Archaean basement of a large stratovolcano composed mainly of tholeiitic basalt and potassic basaltic‐andesite erupted possibly from a mantle‐derived ultramafic diapir.

Crustal melting above the diapir generated acid magma, rich in silica and potassium, which rose by major block‐stoping to form a subvolcanic magma chamber. Leakage from this chamber during the premonitory caldera phase gave rise to small explosive and effusive eruptions around an incipient ring‐fracture zone. In the caldera phase, the eruption of voluminous rhyodacite to dacite ignimbrite from the subvolcanic magma chamber resulted in collapse of the roof partway through the eruption to form the Chandabooka caldera, 15 x 10 km across: the ignimbrite comprises a thick compound cooling unit, the Chandabooka Dacite, of which both the caldera and outflow facies are preserved. Resurgent doming and subsequent uplift of the caldera block by 1 km followed in the post‐caldera phase, accompanied by minor acidic volcanism. Flat‐roofed stocks of the primitive S‐type Hiltaba Granite and a major dyke swarm intruded the volcanic pile to complete the volcano‐plutonic episode.     

Simulation of the 2011 South Sakhalin mud volcano eruption based on the GPS data

Sakhalin Island is the only region in the Russian Far East where mud volcanism is manifested on land. The South Sakhalin mud volcano is located in the south of the island in the zone of the Central Sakhalin Fault (upthrow-thrust). The horizontal and vertical displacements of the earth’s surface after this mud volcano erupted in 2011 are revealed for the first time based on the GPS observation data. On the basis of the inversion of the measured displacements for the homogeneous elastic half-space, a model of the finite spherical eruption source is constructed. The coordinates, depth, and possible size of the source are defined and the volumes of the erupted clay rock, water, and gas are estimated.     

Unusual eruption of the Main Pugachevo gas-water-lithoclastic (Mud) volcano in Sakhalin during the Winter of 2005

The examination of the Main Pugachevo gas-water-lithoclastic volcano during the summer of 2005 and GPS-controlled large-scale (1: 1000) mapping revealed its regular but rather peculiar eruption. It was the largest among the eruptions investigated since 1911 and produced a very unusual lithoclastic field with an area of about 100 000 m² and a volume of about 100 000 m³. The eruption occurred from three distinct active centers and began with a vigorous explosion-like gas burst from one center followed by the noncontemporaneous discharge of a gas-and water-saturated liquid lithoclastic mass from the three centers, which produced a number of flows of different directions and sizes. The flows almost completely covered the smoothed flat open area of the volcano and even invaded the larch forest surrounding the volcano, where they bent, overturned, broke, and occasionally uprooted and dragged over some distance some large trees. The analysis and comparison with all the previously documented eruptions of the Main Pugachevo gas-water-lithoclastic volcano revealed their fairly diverse, sometimes strongly variable character with respect to many parameters: the amount of ejected lithoclastic material; the number of eruption centers; and the proportions of the erupted gaseous, liquid, and solid components. In general, the eruptions show a distinctly multirank periodic character: relatively minor or small low-rank eruptions take place once every 1–2 yr, and large eruptions of a higher rank are much less frequent (supposedly, once in 70 years).     

A Volumetric Model for Evaluating Tight Sandstone Gas Reserves in the Permian Sulige Gas Field,Ordos Basin,Central China

To accurately measure and evaluate reserves is critical for ensuring successful production of unconventional oil and gas. This work proposes a volumetric model to evaluate the tight sandstone gas reserves of the Permian Sulige gas field in the Ordos Basin. The reserves can be determined by four major parameters of reservoir cutoffs, net pay, gas-bearing area and compression factor Z, which are controlled by reservoir characteristics and sedimentation. Well logging, seismic analysis, core analysis and gas testing, as well as thin section identification and SEM analysis were used to analyze the pore evolution and pore-throat structure. The porosity and permeability cutoffs are determined by distribution function curve,empirical statistics and intersection plot. Net pay and gas-bearing area are determined based on the cutoffs, gas testing and sand body distribution, and the compression factor Z is obtained by gas component. The results demonstrate that the reservoir in the Sulige gas field is characterized by ultralow porosity and permeability, and the cutoffs of porosity and permeability are 5% and 0.15×10~(–3) μm~2, respectively. The net pay and gas-bearing area are mainly affected by the sedimentary facies, sand body types and distribution. The gas component is dominated by methane which accounts for more than 90%, and the compression factor Z of H_8(P_2h_8) and S_1(P_1s_1) are 0.98 and 0.985, respectively. The distributary channels stacked and overlapped, forming a wide and thick sand body with good developed intergranular pores and intercrystalline pores. The upper part of channel sand with good porosity and permeability can be sweet spot for gas exploration. The complete set of calculation systems proposed for tight gas reserve calculation has proved to be effective based on application and feedback. This model provides a new concept and consideration for reserve prediction and calculation in other areas.     

Effusive Activity at Mount Etna Volcano (Italy) During the 20th Century: A Contribution to Volcanic Hazard Assessment

Mount Etna is an open conduit volcano, characterised by persistent activity, consisting of degassing and explosive phenomena at summit craters, frequent flank eruptions, and more rarely, eccentric eruptions. All eruption typologies can give rise to lava flows, which represent the greatest hazard by the volcano to the inhabited areas. Historical documents and scientific papers related to the 20th century effusive activity have been examined in detail, and volcanological parameters have been compiled in a database. The cumulative curve of emitted lava volume highlights the presence of two main eruptive periods: (a) the 1900–1971 interval, characterised by a moderate slope of the curve, amounting to 436 × 10⁶ m³ of lava with average effusion rate of 0.2 m³/s and (b) the 1971–1999 period, in which a significant increase in eruption frequency is associated with a large issued lava volume (767 × 10⁶ m³) and a higher effusion rate (0.8 m³/s). The collected data have been plotted to highlight different eruptive behaviour as a function of eruptive periods and summit vs. flank eruptions. The latter have been further subdivided into two categories: eruptions characterised by high effusion rates and short duration, and eruptions dominated by low effusion rate, long duration and larger volume of erupted lava. Circular zones around the summit area have been drawn for summit eruptions based on the maximum lava flow length; flank eruptions have been considered by taking into account the eruptive fracture elevation and combining them with lava flow lengths of 4 and 6 km. This work highlights that the greatest lava flow hazard at Etna is on the south and east sectors of the volcano. This should be properly considered in future land-use planning by local authorities.     

An experimental investigation of density-stratified inertial gravity currents

Turbidity currents and pyroclastic density currents may originate as stratified flows or develop stratification during propagation. Analogue, density‐stratified laboratory currents are described, using layers of salt solutions with different concentrations and depths to create the initial vertical stratification. The evolving structure of the flow depends on the distribution of the driving buoyancy between the layers, B* (proportional to the layer volumes and densities), and their density ratio, ρ*. When the lower layer contains more salt than the upper layer, and so has a greater proportion of the driving buoyancy (B* < 0·5), this layer can run ahead leading to streamwise or longitudinal stratification (ρ*→0), or the layers can mix to produce a homogeneous current (ρ*→1). If the upper layer contains more salt and thus buoyancy (B* > 0·5), this layer travels to the nose of the current by mixing into the back of the head along the body/wake density interface to produce a homogeneous flow (ρ*→1) or overtaking, leading to streamwise stratification (ρ*→0). Timescales describing the mixing between the layers and the streamwise separation of the layers are used to understand these flow behaviours and are in accordance with the experimental observations. Distance–time measurements of the flow front show that strongly stratified flows initially travel faster than weakly stratified flows but, during their later stages, they travel more slowly. In natural flows that are stratified in concentration and grain size, internal features, such as stepwise grading, gradual upward fining and reverse grading, could be produced depending on B* and ρ*. Stratification may also be expected to affect interactions with topography and overall fan architecture.     

Thermal structure of the gas-and-ash plume during eruption of Koryak volcano

High resolution thermal cameras were used in observations of gas-and-ash plumes during eruption of the Koryak volcano in March 2009. Our results provide the thermal structure of gas-and-ash flows. The structure of the eruption column consists of several individual plumes. The vertical velocity of plume rise was estimated at 5.5–7 m/s. The eruption column or plume can be conventionally divided into three parts: a highly convective region, a buoyant region, and a region of horizontal motion. The temperature of the plume is higher than that of the surrounding atmosphere by 3–5°C for the horizontal motion region and by about 20°C for the buoyant region. The velocity at the buoyant region is 5–7 m/s. For the boundary between highly convective and buoyant regions, where the plume diameter is known, the vapor mass flow and the heat capacity of the thermal jet flow can be determined from the heat balance equation. The mass flow of the overheated vapor, which has a temperature of 450°C and comprises a gas-and-ash eruption plume, was estimated to be Q = 35 kg/s. The total mass of water vapor over the period of eruption (100 days) is estimated at 3 · 10⁵ t. The total thermal energy of the eruption amounted to 10⁹ MJ.     

Large dyke intrusion and small eruption: The December 24, 2018 Mt. Etna eruption imaged by Sentinel‐1 data

On December 24th, Mt. Etna volcano underwent a seismic crisis beneath the summit and upper southern flank of the volcano, accompanied by significant ash emission. Eruptive fissures opened at the base of summit craters, propagating SE‐wards. This lateral eruption lasted until December 27th. Despite the small eruption, seismic swarm and ground deformation were very strong. Sentinel‐1 interferograms show a wide and intense ground deformation with some additional features related to volcano‐tectonic structures. We inverted DInSAR data to characterise the magma intrusion. The resulting model indicates that a large dyke intruded but aborted its upraise at about the sea level; however, this big intrusion stretched the edifice, promoting the opening of the eruptive fissures fed by a shallower small dyke, and activating also several faults. This model highlights that a big intrusion beneath a structurally complex volcano represents a main issue even if the eruption is aborted.     

Asymmetrical deltas below wave base: Insights from the Fraser River Delta,Canada

The Fraser River Delta exhibits distinct asymmetry in the sedimentological and neoichnological characteristics of the updrift (south) and downdrift (north) sides of the main distributary channel in water depths below storm‐wave base. The asymmetry is the result of net northward tidal flow. Tides erode sediments across the updrift delta front, whereas the downdrift delta front is an area of net deposition. A submarine channel prevents sand eroded from the updrift delta front from reaching the downdrift delta. The updrift delta front and updrift upper prodelta are composed of sand or heterolithic sand and mud that show a low density of burrowing (Bioturbation Index 0 to 3) and are dominated by simple traces. The downdrift delta front and prodelta, and the updrift lower prodelta are composed of homogeneous muds with significantly higher bioturbation intensities (Bioturbation Index 3 to 6), and a more diverse suite of traces akin to Cruziana Ichnofacies. Using the Fraser River Delta as an archetype and comparing the Fraser to the Amazon River Delta, a preliminary model for deep‐water (below storm‐wave base: ca 20 m) asymmetrical deltas is proposed. Firstly, deep‐water asymmetrical deltas are recognized from sediments deposited below storm‐wave base. At these depths, tidal and ocean currents are more likely to impact sediment transport, but wave processes are less effective as a sediment transport mechanism. Sediments deposited below storm‐wave base in deep‐water asymmetrical deltas will display the following: (i) the updrift delta front will be coarser‐grained (for example, sand‐dominated or heterolithic sand and mud), than the downdrift delta front (for example, mud‐dominated); and (ii) the updrift delta front should show low‐diversity suites of simple burrows. Depending on sedimentation rates, the downdrift delta front and prodelta may show either high diversity suites of traces that are dominated by both complex and simple burrows (low sedimentation rates) or low density and diversity suites akin to the updrift delta front (high sedimentation rates).     

含水层层状非均质对地下水流系统的影响

区域尺度上含水层非均质具有复杂的结构性和随机性,难以准确刻画,造成非均质对区域地下水流系统的影响机制研究不够深入。本文以鄂尔多斯盆地白垩系地下水流系统为研究实例,选择典型剖面,采用剖面二维随机数值模拟方法,通过对比不同非均质刻画方法下地下水流场的变化,探讨含水层层状非均质对地下水流系统的影响机制。结果显示,均质条件下模型各向异性（含水层水平和垂向渗透系数比值Kh/Kv）取值为1000时,地下水流场与实际条件较为接近;非均质条件下,渗透系数方差取值0.91,水平相关长度取值5000 m,Kh/Kv取值150时,接近实际条件。研究表明,在大尺度地下水流模拟研究中,采用水平相关长度、渗透系数方差和各向异性值三个变量生成的随机场能很好地刻画含水层的层状非均质特征及其对水流系统的影响控制作用。由于含水层不同尺度层状非均质的叠加效应,采用均质各向异性介质等效概化含水层层状非均质性会造成等效各向异性值偏大失真的效应。     

砂岩透镜体油气藏成因机理与模式

泥岩层的幕式压实/压裂现象和砂岩透镜体中沸腾包裹体的发现,证明了该类圈闭成藏过程中超压流体幕式充注机制的存在。综合考虑油气运聚的动力与作用方式、输导格架类型与流体流动样式、成藏特征、运聚机理和成藏模式,将砂岩透镜体动力学成因类型划分为毛细管力-超压联控型和超压单控型。对砂岩透镜体中的流体排放机制进行了探讨,并认为处于强超压状态的砂岩透镜体油气藏可能存在侧向和垂向两种流体排放模式。