The geobiological formation process of the marine source rocks in the Middle Permian Chihsia Formation of South China

The Chihsia Formation is one of the four sets of regional marine hydrocarbon source rocks from South China.In the past two decades,detailed geochemical and sedimentological studies have been carried out to investigate its origination,which have demonstrated that the high primary productivity plays a primary role in the deposition of sediments enriched in the organic matter.However,the mechanism of this high productivity and the path of the deposition and burial of the organic matter have always been a mystery.Based on the previous studies on the Shangsi Section in Guangyuan City,Sichuan Province,we proposed that the development of the equatorial upwelling due to the sea level rise is responsible for the relatively high productivity in the Chihsia Formation.The sea waters with high nutrient were transported by the sub-surface currents along the equator.High organic carbon flux was deposited on the deeper shelf,and then decomposed by bacteria,leading to the occurrence of anaerobic respiration.The metabolism of the microorganisms consumed the dissolved oxygen in waters,which was in favor of the preservation of the organic matter.This suggested geobiological model integrating with paleoclimatology,paleoceanography and geomicrobiology will help us to understand the causes of this particular sedimentary sequence.     

On the development mechanism of the lacustrine high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks of Chang 91 member in Ordos Basin

As revealed from recent drilling and organic geochemical testing and research, a series of lacustrine high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks was discovered in the upper section of the Chang 9 oil reservoir member of upper Triassic in Ordos Basin. The hydrocarbon source rocks show average TOC content as high as 5.03%, average bitumen "A" content as high as 0.8603%, and good quality organic precursors, which are of the sapropelic type mainly derived from lower aquatic plants and have reached the thermal evolution stage featured by oil-producing climax. Generally the lacustrine high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks were developed in local depressions of a lake basin, and the Chang 91 member was particularly formed in a depositional environment characterized by fresh water to weakly saline water, weakly oxidizing to weakly reducing setting and semi-deep lake facies, as was demonstrated by a variety of organic to inorganic geochemical parameters. As a result, high productivity constitutes the principal controlling force for generation of this series of high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks. Deposition of thinly-bedded and laminated tuffs as well as positive Eu anomaly corroborate the possible occurrence of anoxic geological event closely related to contemporaneous volcanic eruption, which would play a key part in development of the Chang 91 member of high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks.     

辽河坳陷大民屯凹陷三台子地区下第三系碎屑岩储层预测研究

针对目标区下第三系储层横向变化快,沉积特征不明显等特点,为提高滚动探井、开发井的钻探成功率,本文研制形成一套具有针对性的油气藏勘探预测研究方法.即运用多井约束波阻抗地震反演方法来预测砂体展布,同时对生成的地震波阻抗反演数据体中的振幅、厚度等暗含的有效信息进行提取,对砂体的分布范围及厚度变化进行准确而精细的描述和预测,最终依据此法优选有利相带,部署井位,取得了很好的勘探开发效果.     

Occurrence, thermal evolution and primary migration processes derived from studies of organic matter in the Lucaogou source rock at the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, NW China

The Lucaogou Formation carbonate-rich oil shale source rock is exposed at the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, NW China. We have sampled it in detail and conducted microstructural, mineralogical and geochemical studies, including thin section petrography, UV fluorescence petrography, X-ray diffraction, vitrinite reflectance, bitumen reflectance, fluid inclusion analysis and Raman spectroscopy. Organic matter is disseminated through the carbonate-bearing siltstone source rocks and concentrated in numerous bedding parallel stylolites and in two sets of carbonate veins, one along bedding parallel fractures and the other cross-cutting stylolites and bedding. The research about maturity of organic matter finds vitrinite reflectance values increase from the dispersed kerogen (0.64%) to the stylolites (the one of oriented vitrinite is 0.72% and the one of migrated bitumen is 2.38%); Homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in veins containing hydrocarbon fluid inclusions show an increase from 178.5℃ in the bedding parallel veins to 222℃ in the cross-cutting veins, confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. These results support a model of progressive heating accompanied by fluid loss during later stages of thermal maturation of source rock and the onset of primary migration. Obviously, the occurrence of organic matter is the trace of hydrocarbon primary migration, and the bedding lamination surfaces and cross-cutting fissures are the principal pathways of hydrocarbon-bearing fluids migration. Bedding lamination surfaces evolved into stylolites along the earliest primary migration pathways, followed by bedding parallel and cross-cutting fissures.     

Early diagenetic growth of carbonate concretions in the upper Doushantuo Formation in South China and their significance for the assessment of hydrocarbon source rock

Mineralogical and textural characteristics and organic carbon composition of the carbonate concretions from the upper Doushantuo Formation (ca. 551 Ma) in the eastern Yangtze Gorge area reveal their early diagenetic (shallow) growth in organic-rich shale. High organic carbon content (up to 10%) and abundance of framboidal pyrites in the hosting shale suggest an anoxic or euxinic depositional environment. Well-preserved cardhouse clay fabrics in the concretions suggest their formation at 0-3 m burial depth, likely associated with microbial decomposition of organic matter and anaerobic oxidation of methane. Gases through decomposition of organic matter and/or from methanogenesis created bubbles and cavities, and anaerobic methane oxidation at the sulfate reduction zone resulted in carbonate precipitation, filling in bubbles and cavities to form spherical structures of the concretions. Rock pyrolysis analyses show that the carbonate concretions have lower total organic carbon (TOC) content but higher effective carbon than those in the host rocks. This may be caused by enclosed organic matter in pores of the concretions so that organic matter was protected from further modification during deep burial and maintained high hydrocarbon generating potential even in over-matured source rock. As a microbialite sensu latu, concretions have special growth conditions and may provide important information on the microbial activities in depositional and early burial environments.     

TOC changes in the process of thermal evolution of source rock and its controls

Through geological observation, simulation in laboratory and numerical modeling, the factors that control the changes in total organic content (TOC) of source rock have been studied. When the formula DTOC=(TOC0-TOC)/TOC0 (original organic carbon content in the rock) is used to measure the TOC (total organic carbon content) changes in the source rock through geological time, the degrees and directions of such changes are determined by losses and relative amounts both of organic and inorganic matter in the source rock. The DTOC equation, which is used to calculate the loss rate in the process of maturation for the source rock, is therefore obtained by analyzing the mass balance relations. For a certain type of source rock with a certain maturation history, the changes of its TOC respond only to the rates of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion. In actual cases of geological entities, DTOC generally ranges from -0.05 to 0.2, while the calculated reconversion coefficient (k) for organic carbon content remains between 0.90 and 1.25. Only in an ideal situation where there are extremely high rates of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion can the DTOC value experience significant changes, with k reaching up to 2.5. It is concluded, therefore, that the criterion for carbonates source rock assessment, based on reconverting the TOC to the value of its original state, may have overestimated the course of the "carbon-reduction", which is likely in many cases to make a poor source rock sound better.     

Classification and origin of natural gases from Lishui Sag,the East China Sea Basin

Natural gases discovered up to now in Lishui Sag,the East China Sea Basin,differ greatly in gaseous compositions,of which hydrocarbon gases amount to 2%―94%while non-hydrocarbon gases are dominated by CO2.Their hydrocarbon gases,without exception,contain less than 90%of methane and over 10%of C2 heavier hydrocarbons,indicating a wet gas.Carbon isotopic analyses on these hydrocarbon gases showed thatδ13C 1 ,δ13C 2 andδ13C 3 are basically lighter than-44‰,-29‰and-26‰, respectively.The difference in carbon isotopic values between methane and ethane is great,suggesting a biogenic oil-type gas produced by the mixed organic matter at peak generation.δ13C CO2 values of nonhydrocarbon gases are all heavier than-10‰,indicating a typical abiogenic gas.The simulation experiment on hydrocarbon generation of organic matter in a closed gold-tube system showed that the proportion of methane in natural gases produced by terrigenous organic matter in the Lingfeng Formation marine deposit is obviously higher than that in natural gases derived from the aquatic and terrigenous mixed organic matter in the Yueguifeng Formation lacustrine deposit,consequently the proportion of heavier hydrocarbons of the former is remarkably lower than that of the latter.Moreover, δ13C 1 values of natural gases produced by terrigenous organic matter in the Lingfeng Formation marine deposit are about 5‰heavier than those of natural gases derived from the aquatic and terrigenous mixed organic matter in the Yueguifeng Formation lacustrine deposit whileδ13C 2 andδ13C 3 values of the former are over 9‰heavier than those of the latter.Currently the LS36-1 oil-gas pool is the only commercial oil-gas reservoir in Lishui Sag,where carbon isotopic compositions of various hydrocarbon components differ greatly from those of natural gases produced by the Lingfeng Formation organic matter but are very similar to those of natural gases derived from the Yueguifeng Formation organic matter,therefore,natural gases in the LS36-1 oil-gas pool are mainly derived from the Yueguifeng Formation lacustrine source rock rather than the Lingfeng Formation marine or Mingyuefeng Formation coal-measures source rocks.     

东营凹陷波动古湖相烃源岩沉积特征

以东营凹陷牛38井为例,研究显示,该井沙河街组沙三段烃源岩的沉积特征具有明显的波动性．宏观上体现为, 构造因素控制湖盆的整体升降和沉积构造旋回,但季节性气候及其它因素的影响使湖盆呈现次级旋回的复合性沉积．微观上表现为纹层的不连续性及生物扰动构造等事件性沉积.古湖面不同幅度的波动和变化导致相对稳定的泥岩沉积的不稳定性,有机质的分布也呈现较显著的非均质性．湖泊的沉积过程影响了微量元素、有机质以及烃源物质的分布,水体较深、盐度较高的沙三段下部多数微量元素含量较高以及B／Ca、Sr／Ba呈现高值;水体较浅、盐度较低的沙三段中部各元素的分布较为稳定,B／Ca、Sr／Ba比值及Sr的含量均显著降低.波动性沉积导致烃源岩呈现明显的优劣性分布,沙三段下部中的有机质富集,为优质烃源岩;沙三段中部的有机质分布较为分散,生排烃的资源潜力有限．     

Rock temperatures as an indicator of weathering processes affecting rock art

To aid rock art conservation, rock temperatures have been monitored at different depths and at low (30 min) and high (1 min) acquisition rates in a painted rock shelter in the uKhahlamba‐Drakensberg Park (South Africa). Preliminary data for winter (cold and dry) show that in that season cryoclasty is unlikely to occur (rare subzero thermal events and probable reduced moisture availability) and thermal shocks are improbable (highest measured ΔT/Δt < 2 °C min^?1). High amplitude (about 30 °C) rock temperature cycles accompanied by reversals of the thermal gradient have been observed to occur almost daily and hint at the possibility of thermal stress fatigue. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Paleogene mammalian fauna exchanges and the paleogeographic pattern in Asia

Mammals are the most important elements in Cenozoic terrestrial ecosystem. The composition and the character of a mammalian fauna are controlled by evolution time and evolutionary rate. Here we took 50 Asian Paleogene mammalian faunas as representatives and applied Bayesian Tip-dating method to infer the relationships and divergence times among these faunas.Based on the results of Bayesian Tip-dating analyses, we discussed the correlation between the paleogeographic changes and the mammalian fauna turn-overs. Compared with the traditional fauna correlation and sorting, Bayesian Tip-dating analyses revealed more detailed similarities reflected via the divergence times among the 50 faunas. We discovered that the early Eocene mammalian fauna, which firstly appeared in India subcontinent, is similar to the faunas of the same age in other parts of Asia. It is likely that a passage for the mammalian dispersal was formed before early Eocene. Bayesian inferring suggests that the first appearance of the dispersal passage is during 64.8–61.3 Ma. This time window is close to the time estimation for the initial time of India-Asia collision. During 57.1–47.2 Ma, India subcontinent probably had a habitat different from the main part of Asia, as it was reflected from the composition of the mammalian faunas. It is probably correlated with the uplifted Gangdese Mountain and shallow seas and lowlands on both sides of the collision region. The very remote divergence time(64.8 Ma) estimated by Bayesian inferring reflects the mammalian fauna turnover during the Eocene-Oligocene transition, obviously affected by the global cooling. Till the end of Oligocene, the Arabic Peninsula and Asian mainland remained separated and the mammalian faunas did not show clear connection.     

Formation and deformation processes of late Paleogene sedimentary basins in southern central Hokkaido,Japan: Paleomagnetic and numerical modeling approach

Formation and deformation processes of the late Paleogene sedimentary basins related to a strike–slip fault system in southern central Hokkaido are described by a combination of paleomagnetic study and numerical analysis. After correction of the Miocene counter‐clockwise rotation associated with back‐arc opening of the Japan Sea, paleomagnetic declination data obtained from surface outcrops in the Umaoi and Yubari areas show significant easterly deflections. Although complicated differential rotation is anticipated as a result of recent thrust movements, clockwise rotation in the study areas is closely linked with development of the Paleogene Minami‐naganuma Basin as a pull‐apart depression along the north–south fault system. Numerical modeling suggests that 30 km of strike–slip is required to restore the distribution and volume of the Minami‐naganuma Basin. The relative slip rate on the long‐standing fault system is about 10 mm/yr, which corresponds to global‐scale plate motion. It has inevitably caused regional rearrangement of the eastern Eurasian margin. A rotation field simulated by simplified dextral motion using dislocation modeling basically accords with the paleomagnetic data around the pull‐apart basin.     

相控声源与声束的形成

用多个声源,按照一定的规律排列,分别用不同的时间激发,使每个声源激发的声波在介质中传播时有一定的相位差,这种产生声波的方法叫相控方法,这多个声源统称为相控声源．用相控声源的主要目的之一是产生一个可以控制其方向的声束．相对于点声源激发的球面波来讲,声束的能量比较集中,在介质中传播的比较远,对小的障碍物散射比较强．这样可以使声波传播的比较远,对那些声衰减比较大的介质进行一些精度比较高的探测．本文讨论相控声源在固体中激发的声束．     

Stability of iron oxides and their role in the formation of rock magnetism

Thermodynamic conditions (first of all, temperature) are the main dynamic factors in the transformation process of ferrous to ferric iron (TFFI). TFFI usually takes place within a temperature range of 473–843 K (most active at temperatures above 673 K) and does not require presence of the oxidizing agents above 673 K. Analysis of the chemical composition of different rocks and minerals indicates that only for some sedimentary rocks is the relative content of ferrous iron oxide less than its value in magnetite, and this value is minimal for oceanic sediments. The relative content of ferrous iron oxide in oceanic magmatic rocks exceeds this value in continental magmatic rocks and depends on the rate of rock cooling. An investigation of the role of the titanium oxide content of different rocks on stability of ferrous iron oxide against its transformation to ferric iron oxide shows that a significant correlation (r = 0.79) does exist between the relative content of ferrous iron oxide and ratio of TiO₂/Fe₂O₃. Temperature within the solar nebula at location of the Earth was within the temperature range of the TFFI. During the Earth accretion and its early evolution, ferric iron oxide was unstable and most likely did not exist. The first magnetic minerals containing ferric iron could have appeared only after the Earth’s surface had cooled below ∼843 K. The formation of the first Algoma-type banded iron formations could be used as a marker of the Earth’s surface cooling below ∼843 K.     

非对称圆弧片状声源在井旁地层中产生的声场

提出了一种可用于随钻三维反射声波成像测井的圆弧片状声源,推导了该声源声学性质在波数-频率域内的数学描述,并利用实轴积分的方法对该声源在井旁地层中产生的声场进行求解,考察了声源的线度、频率等因素对该声源向地层中辐射的声场的影响.研究结果表明,特定尺寸和特定频率下的圆弧片状声源产生的纵波场的水平和垂直指向性图中仅具有一个明显的主瓣,且主瓣三分贝角宽较窄,方位分辨率较高,指向性良好,适用于随钻三维反射成像测井;SV波场和SH波场的指向性图中存在两个或者多个角瓣,SV波场在垂直于井轴方向上辐射的能量为0,另外在井中发射和接收的反射SH波场和SV波场会相互干扰,所以难以利用SV波场和SH波场进行三维反射声波成像;声源的线度和频率等因素对其辐射声场影响较大,考虑到激励效率和方位分辨率等因素,对于本文描述的井孔模型,选择圆周角在75°和90°之间, 主频为12 kHz左右的声源是合适的.     

Insights into the formation of rock varnish in prevailing dusty regions

The characteristics of rock varnish from the Campo de Piedra Pomez (CPP, Andes Argentina) provides new insights into the development of rock varnish under severe dusty conditions. The CPP varnish has been analysed using SEM‐EDAX and Raman techniques. The rock coating is tens of microns in thickness and under the microscope shows a micro to cryptocrystalline appearance and a general granular texture. Silica (quartz, cristobalite and amorphous silica) is the main phase forming these coverings followed by Al, K and Na compounds. Minor Fe oxides and Mn oxides are the source for the orange (Fe) and brown (Fe and Mn) hues of the coating. The results obtained for the CPP coating show that desert varnish developed under dusty circumstances does not have the appearance of typical rock varnish. Textural characteristics include high crystallinity and granular arrangement of the components. Moreover the absence of typical microlaminations is related to the presence of aeolian mineral grains which inhibit their development. The main mechanism of formation of rock varnish under such environmental circumstances is the direct incorporation of aeolian mineral grains into the varnish. However, other physicochemical processes are also required to explain the formation of varnish components such as amorphous silica or iron oxides phases. Although the development of the desert varnish may act as a protector of the underlying pyroclastic rock, the extreme and persistent windy conditions in the CPP field are high enough to weather and erode not only the rock coating but also the original ignimbrite. As other warm desert sites on Earth, the CPP area can also be considered as possible terrestrial analogue to Mars. Some environmental attributes might be similar to those expected on the Martian surface and thus, textural similarities between the CPP varnish and the rock varnish‐like coating of Mars are likely. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rhenium-osmium isotope constraints on the age and source of the platinum mineralization in the Lower Cambrian black rock series of Hunan-Guizhou provinces,China

The bottom of the Lower Cambrian series is an important bed typical of boundary event. The bed had been enriched with many useful elements such as Ni, Mo, Cu, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir and Pt, many rare and dispersed elements such as Cd, Se, Tl, …     

A Paleogene magmatic overprint on Cretaceous seamounts of the western Pacific

The West Pacific Seamount Province (WPSP) represents a series of short-lived Cretaceous hotspot tracks. However, no intraplate volcanoes in advance of petit-spot volcanism erupted near a trench have been identified after the formation of the WPSP on the western Pacific Plate. This study reports new ages for Paleogene volcanic edifices within the northern WPSP, specifically the Ogasawara Plateau and related ridges, and Minamitorishima Island. These Paleogene ages are the first reported for basaltic rocks on western Pacific seamounts, in an area that has previously only yielded Cretaceous ages. The newly found Paleogene volcanisms overprint the Early–middle Cretaceous volcanic edifices, because the seamount or paleo-island material-covered reefal limestone caps on these edifices are uniformly older than the Paleogene volcanism identified in this study. This study outlines several possible causative factors for the Paleogene volcanism overprinting onto existing Cretaceous seamounts, including volcanism related to lithospheric stress, or a younger hotspot track within the northern part of the WPSP that records magmatism from ~60 Ma.     

致密气藏烃源岩地化参数测井综合评价方法研究

针对塔里木盆地库车坳陷北部侏罗系烃源岩受泥浆污染、分析数据少、样品分布不连续及类型多样等问题突出,利用测井资料来对有机地球化学参数进行评价难度大,无法满足勘探需求.本文阐述了不同类型烃源岩的有机质级别、测井响应特征、有机地球化学参数定量计算及品质评价等多种方法,来研究富集区烃源岩对致密气储层的持续供气能力.文中介绍了煤层、碳质泥岩、暗色泥岩等3种类型烃源岩的有机质级别和测井响应特征.首先,提出分不同岩性烃源岩的ΔlogR法,其计算结果与铀曲线相关法、多元回归法对比,效果最好;再次建立了生烃潜率、氯仿沥青"A"及镜质体发射率等多个有机质地球化学参数的测井评价模型;最终,考虑能够反映烃源岩性质的参数来综合定义烃源岩品质指数,形成了完善的烃源岩测井综合评价方法研究技术.研究表明,利用这套地球物理技术提供了烃源岩定量评价和品质分类研究方法及实际应用案例.     

Sequence stratigraphic framework and distribution of depositional systems for the Paleogene in Liaodong Bay area

With a comprehensive geological and geophysical data base,the Paleogene in the Liaodong Bay area,which consists of the Kongdian,Shahejie and Donghying Formations from the base to top,was divided into 4 second-order sequences and 8 third-order sequences based on the characteristics of the se-quence boundaries. Each third-order sequence is subdivided into the lowstand,lake transgressive and highstand systems tracts. The Lowstand systems tract (LST) is mainly composed of progradational parasequence sets,while the lake transgressive systems tract (TST) largely consists of the retrograda-tional parasequence sets and the highstand systems tract (HST) is dominated by the progradational parasequence sets. The main types of depositional systems include the shallow lake,semi-deep lake,deep lake,delta,fan delta,braided fluvial delta and nearshore subaqueous fan. The braided fluvial delta and fan delta depositional systems are mainly confined to the sequences of the lower SEs4-Ek,SEs3 and SEs1 2,while the sequences of SEd3,SEd2 and SEd1 are dominated by the delta and nearshore subaqueous fan depositional systems with the latter being developed at the downthrown side of the basin-bounding fault in each sequence. The evolution of the depositional systems is always con-trolled by the paleo-tectonic setting and the ancient landform in the space and geological time. It is concluded that the most favorable reservoirs are distributed in the Liaoxi low uplift and the central Liaozhong sag.     

Tectonic reconstruction of batholith formation based on the spatiotemporal distribution of Cretaceous–Paleogene granitic rocks in southwestern Japan

The spatiotemporal distribution of Cretaceous–Paleogene granitic rocks in southwestern Japan is investigated to understand the origin of the granitic batholith belt and to reconstruct the tectonic setting of emplacement. New U–Pb zircon ages for 92 samples collected from a region measuring 50 km (E–W) by 200 km (N–S) reveals a stepwise northward younging of granitic rocks aged between 95 and 30 Ma with an age‐data gap between 60 and 48 Ma. Based on the spatiotemporal distribution of granite ages, we examine two plausible models to explain the pattern of magmatic activity: (i) subduction of a segmented spreading ridge and subsequent slab melting (ridge‐subduction model), and (ii) subduction with a temporally variable subduction angle and corresponding spatial distribution of normal arc magmatism (subduction angle model). We optimize the model parameters to fit the observed magmatism in time and space, and compare the best‐fit models. As to ridge subduction model, the best‐fit solution indicates that the spreading ridge started to subduct at approximately 100 Ma, and involved a 45‐km‐wide section of the ridge segment, a subduction obliquity of 30°, and a slow migration velocity (～1.6 cm/y) of the ridge. These values are within the ranges of velocities observed for present‐day ridge subduction at the Chile trench. On the other hand, the best‐fit solution of subduction angle model indicates that the subduction angle decreases stepwise from 37° at 95 Ma, 32° at 87 Ma, 22° at 72 Ma, to 20° at 65 Ma, shifting magmatic region towards the continental side. These results and comparison, together with constraints on the geometry of the tectonic setting provided by previous studies, suggest that the ridge subduction model better explains the limited duration of magmatism, although both models broadly fit the data and cannot be ruled out.