Mineral fish: their morphological classification,usefulness as shear sense indicators and genesis

Mineral fish are sheared and commonly asymmetric mineral grains or clusters of grains. This work reports 11 sub-types of mineral fish showing a top-to-SE sense of ductile shearing in the Karakoram Metamorphic Complex (KMC). The mineral fish are of three broad geometries: sigmoid, lenticular and parallelogram. Reliable senses of shear are indicated by the overall asymmetry and inclination of mineral fish. On the other hand, the true shear sense is not always indicated by either the orientations of their cleavage planes or those of the individual grains in composite mineral fish. The ranges of local orientations of single sigmoid mineral fish that include the lower values (<23°) in the KMC indicate their extensive ductile shearing. The studied mineral fish were products of a range of deformation mechanisms including homogeneous deformation, simple shear, intra-granular slip, crystal-plastic deformation, fracturing and synthetic shearing. Additionally, some examples might have undergone duplex slips and a few nucleated and grew either prior to or during the top-to-SE shearing.     

Secondary cleavages in ductile shear zones

Secondary cleavages developed at late stages in ductile shear zones show several features that are inconsistent with progressive simple shear in the zone. These are: the orientation of a single secondary cleavage oblique to the shear zone boundaries; conjugate sets with opposite senses of shear, and multiple sets with the same sense of shear. These features can be explained if the bulk flow is partitioned into slip along discrete failure planes parallel to the primary foliation (S), coaxial stretching along the foliation, and spin.     

Optical studies of natural deformation microstructures in feldspars (gneiss and pegmatites from Occitania,southern France)

Natural deformation microstructures of feldspars have been investigated optically in augen gneisses and pegmatites from southern France that exhibit microstructures due to polyphase deformation. This deformation was produced in both cases under a pressure of about 2 Kb and a temperature decreasing from about 550° to 200–300°C.In microcline, recrystallization, tension gashes and shear planes are the most important microstructures observed. In plagioclase, shear planes and kink-bands prevail. The development of these structures is controlled primarily by three parameters: temperature, influence of the surrounding material and amount of bulk strain. The orientation of the planes of anisotropy of the minerals with respect to the compression axis is also important. Some perthitic patterns are ascribed to deformation.     

中、高压下粗粒土-结构接触面特性受结构面形貌尺度影响的试验研究

采用改进的DRS-I型高压直剪仪进行了砂砾与不同形貌尺度的粗糙钢板结构面接触剪切试验,获得不同压力、形貌尺度条件下的剪切试验结果,分析了中、高压下的不同结构面形貌尺度与砂土颗粒平均粒径比值R（ ,相对形貌尺度）对接触面剪切特性的影响。结构面相对形貌尺度R直接影响接触面剪切过程中的力学与体变特性,中压与高压下分别呈现不同的影响规律且存在各自的峰值相对形貌尺度 与稳定相对形貌尺度 。达到峰值相对形貌尺度之前,R的增大使得接触面剪切耗能随之增加,而剪切体变在中压、高压下分别随之增加和降低;稳定相对形貌尺度之后,接触面剪切耗能与剪切体变达到稳定状态,随R的增大呈微小变化,变化幅值较小。上述规律与接触面附近一定区域的颗粒变位及破碎等机制密切相关,获得成果将为研究不同法向压力下受形貌尺度影响的结构面相对粗糙度问题提供新思路,对于研究不同法向压力下粗粒土与粗糙结构面的接触面力学与变形机制有一定借鉴意义。     

Microfracturing in relation to atomic structure of plagioclase from a deformed meta-anorthosite

Brittle deformation of Caledonian age affects the Harris (Scotland) meta-anorthosite and occurs as restricted areas with penetrative networks of shear fractures, frequently associated with pseudotachylite. Plagioclase is cut by both transcrystalline and intracrystalline fractures, the latter being of two types: those directly induced by the transcrystalline shear fractures and those which appear to be independent of them. Several orientations of intracrystalline fractures may occur in any one grain.Whereas the orientations of the transcrystalline fractures may be independent of the plagioclase lattice, intracrystalline fractures are clearly crystallographically controlled. The most common intracrystalline fractures follow the main cleavage planes, (001) in all cases, but also frequently (010), (110) and (110). Other fracture directions, often conjugate, are very common. They include (021) and others near (111)–(121) and (111)–(121) close to the [101] and the [112] and [112] zones. These latter planes are those which also occur as cleavages in experimentally shocked microcline and as slip planes and deformation bands in experimentally deformed feldspars.The easy slip and low cohesion in plagioclase can be explained in terms of periodic bond chains in the feldspar structure. The close agreement in orientation between the unusual cleavages developed in the meta-anorthosite and experimentally produced deformation bands in plagioclase suggests that fracture occurs along the deformation bands parallel to dislocation glide planes.     

含二阶规则起伏体结构面的剪切试验研究

通过常法向应力直剪试验研究了含不同二阶规则起伏体高度结构面的剪切特性。试验结果表明:与只含一阶起伏体结构面不同,含二阶起伏体结构面会有多峰值剪应力和波浪状的变形曲线,会出现多次剪断破坏或一次剪断破坏的破坏特征,随着二阶起伏体高度的增大,结构面剪切强度增大。     

基于多尺度直剪试验的岩石模型结构面抗剪强度特征研究

开展岩石模型结构面抗剪强度特征的多尺度（尤其大尺寸）直剪试验研究对于理解岩石结构面力学特性具有重要的理论价值和实践意义。首先,基于多尺度直剪试验仪(MSJ-DST),对20 cm×20 cm、40 cm×40 cm、60 cm×60 cm、80 cm×80 cm和100 cm×100 cm的岩石模型结构面试样采用法向应力分别为200～1 000 kPa进行直接剪切试验;然后,研究不同尺寸岩石模型结构面抗剪强度的特征。结果表明：不同法向荷载作用下模型的受力变形特点相近,峰值剪切位移总体上随着某一数值附近上下浮动;在同一法向应力作用下,不同尺寸结构面试样的峰值抗剪强度表现出在某一数值附近上下浮动的特征,残余抗剪强度则表现出随尺寸的增加有小幅度增加;5级法向应力作用下,不同尺寸的峰值抗剪强度和残余抗剪强度随着法向应力的变化规律均近似相同,抗剪强度残余值与峰值的比值随着法向应力的增大逐渐增大并趋于稳定。     

Construction of crossed girdles by superposing four subfabrics,each with a single maximum

Commonly, basal glide is the predominant deformation mechanism of quartz in tectonites. Therefore, local deformation is probably mostly progressive simple shear rotating the sheared domains as well as deforming them. If a tectonite body is constrained to be deformed irrotationally and approximately homogeneously throughout, it is necessarily traversed by closely spaced material surfaces that are approximately plane and orthogonal originally, and stay so through time. These surfaces act as internal boundaries and enforce cancellation of the rigid-body rotations of, in the general case, four distinct families of domains, with slip planes and directions mutually mirror-symmetric. The overall symmetry of the fabric is orthorhombic, with the mirror planes coinciding with the principal planes of strain. Certain grains with basal planes in favorable orientation for one of the four ideal simple shears could initiate the deformation, and because of the need for compatibility, entrain neighboring grains into a similar strain, making the surroundings of an initiating grain a shear zone. Compatibility also requires thec-axes of grains in a domain to be rotated progressively toward the direction of maximum shortening. If the original orientation of crystallographic axes was random, domains of one family thus acquire a fabric with a single maximum, and the four resulting fabrics with single maxima combine to form crossed-girdle patterns. Depending on the orientation of the average shear planes and slip directions in the four families, the crossed girdles can be of different types; most fabric types that have been observed in quartz tectonites can be obtained by superposition. Crossed-girdle fabrics with low symmetry result from non-coaxial strain histories.     

Origin and tectonic interpretation of multiple fault patterns

It is shown that in two-dimensional and three-dimensional deformation accommodated by fracture, the symmetry of the fault patterns is an intrinsic attribute because it reflects the symmetry of either stress or strain tensors. The deformation accommodated by sliding along pre-existing planes, when there is kinematic interaction between that planes, forms multiple fault pattern and multiple slickenline sets during a single deformation event. These fault patterns have no restrictions with respect to symmetry, number of fault sets or fault orientation.

The kinematic analysis developed here shows that an interacting system is formed by two cross cutting faults and three slickenlines. One slickenline must be parallel to the intersection line between the planes. Also, it is demonstrated that the slickenlines generally do not correspond to the shear stress solution on the planes. Thus, the interaction between planes does not satisfy the assumption of parallelism between shear stress and slip vector. We conclude that the inversion methods to calculate paleostress tensors can lead to erroneous interpretations in structurally complex zones with many pre-existing planes of weakness.

We propose four possibilities to form multiple fault patterns: (1) two or more events of faulting obeying Coulomb's law with a change of orientation of the principal stresses in each event; (2) reactivation of non-interacting planes according to the Bott (1959) model; (3) one three-dimensional strain event that obeys the “Slip Model”; this mechanism will form an orthorhombic four-fault pattern and two slickenline sets in a single strain event; and (4) one or more events obeying the interacting block model proposed here, with or without rotation of the principal stresses. We propose the last origin as the most common in continental regions.     

采动影响下巷道围岩变形与破坏的弱结构面效应

岩体中弱结构面的产状要素和力学参数是影响深部巷道围岩变形和破坏的重要因素。通过对金川矿区地下开采过程中发生的与弱结构面效应有关的巷道变形特征、破坏模式与机理分析得出,在断层附近或穿过断层开挖时,往往会引起断层活化,引发巷道变形和破坏。当在节理岩体中开挖时会使围岩中低强度的节理裂隙等弱结构面正应力减小,抗剪强度降低,从而发生相对滑移、变形。此外,与巷道开挖相比,矿体开采的影响不仅在持续时间上,还是在影响以及程度上都是造成巷道变形和破坏的弱结构面效应更加显著的主要原因。     

孔隙水压力对锯齿状结构面剪切蠕变特性的影响

为探究孔隙水压对岩体结构面剪切蠕变特性的影响,自主研制了结构面一体化制作模具和多功能剪切流变仪,开展了孔隙水压力下锯齿状结构面的剪切蠕变试验,分析了孔隙水压对结构面蠕变变形、蠕变速率和长期强度的影响。试验结果表明：不同孔隙水压力下的结构面先后经历了瞬时变形阶段、减速蠕变阶段和稳定蠕变阶段,并且孔隙水压力的增大促进了结构面非线性特征的发展;随着孔隙水压力的增大,结构面瞬时位移、蠕变位移和稳态蠕变速率逐渐增大,而蠕变时长、破坏应力和长期强度均呈现明显降低的趋势。根据试验结果,考虑孔隙水压力对模型参数的影响,将蠕变模型中的瞬时剪切模量、黏性剪切模量以及黏性系数替换为孔隙水压力的函数,构建了能够反映孔隙水压力影响的结构面蠕变模型,并对模型参数进行辨识,将试验曲线和理论模型曲线进行对比,验证了模型的正确性和适用性。研究成果对富水区岩体长期稳定性分析提供一定的理论指导。     

Variations in the kinematics of deformation along the Zagros inclined transpression zone,Iran: Implications for defining a curved inclined transpression zone

The combination of inclined collision and plate boundary shape can control the nature of deformation and the sense of shear along a transpression zone. The present study investigated the effects of a boundary zone with curvilinear shape along a transpression zone on the kinematics of deformation. The kinematics of the Zagros transpression zone varies with the orientation of the zone boundary. Detailed structural and microstructural studies showed sinistral sense of shear on the southeastern part of the Zagros inclined transpression zone (Fars Arc), but dextral sense of shear on the northwestern part of the zone. It is inferred that the both senses of shear were developed coevally under a bulk general shear, regional-scale deformation along a curved inclined transpression miming the shape of the Fras Arc of the Zagros and the reentrant of the Bandar Abbas Syntaxis. The Zagros transpression zone formed by inclined continental collision between the Afro-Arabian continent and Iranian microcontinent.     

Evolution of microstructures in Precambrian shear zones: An example from eastern India

Shear zones are areas of intense deformation in localized zones which can be used as natural laboratories for studying deformation characteristics. Metre to-micro scale structures that develop in response to a progressive simple shear in a shear zone are characterized by a protracted history of deformation and are immensely useful in delineating the history of progressive deformation. To decipher these localized zones of deformation and to establish the continuous non-coaxial character of deformation, detail microstructural studies are very useful. Singhbhum shear zone (SSZ), a regional Precambrian tectonic dislocation zone in eastern India, depicting a top-to-south thrust movement of the hanging wall provides a scope for studying microstructural characteristics developed in response to a progressive shear at mid-crustal level. SSZ is characterized by intense stretching lineation, isoclinal folds, shear planes, superposed schistosity and deformed quartz veins. Quasi-plastic (QP) deformation mechanisms were predominantly active in the SSZ. The overprinting relationship between the earlier and later schistosity with a consistent sense of shear indicates that earlier schistosity is transposed to later schistosity through the intermediate stages of crenulation cleavage during a progressive non-coaxial deformation. The recrystallization of quartz in mylonitic quartzite suggests protracted history of deformation. The analysis of the character of quartz grains of both the porphyroclasts and recrystallized grains suggests that strain was partitioned between the most intensely deformed central part of the shear zone and the shear-related deformation zone outside the central part of the shear zone.     

Bedding-parallel shear,thrusting and quartz vein formation in witwatersrand quartzites

Evidence is presented which clearly demonstrates the presence of thrust faults in the gold-bearing sedimentary rocks of the Witwatersrand Supergroup. A package of these rocks subjected to shear strain allowed overlying beds on the northern margin of the Witwatersrand Basin to move outwards in a N-NW direction. Movement took place on ductile shear zones which were parallel to the bedding and often reveal excellent examples of ramp and duplex structures. It has also been established that syntectonic foliation planes were utilized as planes of shear in certain circumstances. Quantitative estimates of strain for the pile, which are of necessity minimum values, give γ ≈ 1. Fluids, from which vein quartz formed, played a critical role in the shear plane movement and may have relieved a portion of the overburden load during deformation.     

优势结构面控制的岩质边坡强震破坏机制研究

据统计,由地震所造成的损失中,地震所诱发的滑坡和崩塌造成的损失约占40%。对于地震作用下斜坡变形破坏的类型与机制,前人已有大量的研究和归纳,然而对此问题的数值模拟研究则少有涉及。四川省什邡市北部山区在512汶川地震中烈度达到11度,遥感解译出的地震诱发崩滑体地质灾害点达161处,其破坏机制主要有顺层-切层滑坡和滑移式崩塌2种形式。本文针对这一地区2种典型滑坡地质灾害,利用赤平投影图分析方法确定边坡的控稳优势结构面组合,在此基础上用离散元数值模拟软件对其失稳过程进行数值模拟计算,分析结果显示:第1种斜坡破坏类型表现为缓倾坡外层状结构斜坡在强震作用下,坡顶首先出现拉裂,斜坡中部的结构面发生剪切变形,随着斜坡上部拉裂面向中部不断延伸并贯通,滑体便从高位沿中部缓倾结构面快速剪出。这种斜坡的变形破坏力学机制为滑移-拉裂,其破坏方式为顺层-切层滑坡。第2种斜坡破坏类型表现为高陡块状结构斜坡在强震作用下,斜坡上部结构面首先被拉裂,发生松动,被切割的块体沿拉裂面底端缓倾坡内或水平的结构面向外产生剪切变形,并在持续地震力作用下不断向坡外运动,以翻滚、崩落的方式运动至坡脚。这种结构类型斜坡的变形破坏力学机制为拉裂-滑移,其破坏方式为滑移式崩塌。     

Geometric consequences of ductile fabric development from brittle shear faults in mafic melt sheets: Evidence from the Sudbury Igneous Complex,Canada

Compared to felsic igneous rocks the genetic relationship between brittle and ductile fabric development and its influence on the geometry of deformed mafic melt sheets has received little attention in structural analyses. We explore these relationships using the Sudbury Igneous Complex (SIC) as an example. The SIC is the relic of a layered impact melt sheet that was transformed into a fold basin, the Sudbury Basin, during Paleoproterozoic deformation at the southern margin of the Archean Superior Province. We studied brittle and ductile strain fabrics on the outcrop and map scales in the southern Sudbury Basin, notably in the Norite and Quartz Gabbro layers of the SIC. Here, deformation is heterogeneous and occurred under variable rheological conditions, evident by the development of brittle shear fractures, brittle-ductile shear zones and pervasive ductile strain. The mineral fabrics formed under low- to middle greenschist-facies metamorphism, whereby brittle deformation caused hydrolytic weakening and ductile fabric development. Principal strain axes inferred from all structural elements are collinear and point to a single deformation regime that led to thinning of SIC layers during progressive deformation. Ductile fabric development profoundly influenced the orientation of SIC material planes, such as lithological contacts and magmatic mineral fabrics. More specifically, these planar structural elements are steep where the SIC underwent large magnitudes of thinning, i.e., in the south limb of the Sudbury Basin. Here, the actual tilt component of material planes is likely smaller than its maximum total rotation (60°) inferred from inclined igneous layering in the Norite. Our field-based study shows that ductile fabric development from brittle faults can have a profound influence on the rotational components of primary material planes in deformed igneous melt sheets.     

Domal structures and high-grade metamorphism in the Higher Himalayan Crystalline, Zanskar Region, north-west Himalaya, India

ABSTRACT In the main Himalayan range in the Ladakh-Zanskar area, domal structures have been observed at structurally deeper levels in the tectonic unit of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline. Their formation occurred during a second, temperature-dominated phase (M₂) of high-grade regional metamorphism, characterized by the semipelitic paragenesis of sillimanite-K-feldspar and incipient anatexis. The doming event reveals a local system of synmetamorphic uplift superimposed on a regional system of northeast-southwest trending compression. In the main Himalayan range the development of the dominant S₂ foliation is related to deformation during the doming phase, which started early in the M₂ event. The deformation propagated continuously north-east and south-west with time. In the north-east, on the northern slopes of the main Himalayan range, this deformation is expressed by extensional shear movements of the upper tectonic levels finally leading to the late- to postmetamorphic normal fault system of the Zanskar shear zone. Towards the south-west, deformation is expressed by compressional movements, e.g. at the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the Kishtwar window area. The observed compression and extension is inferred to relate to an increased uplift of the domal bulges of the tectonic Kishtwar window and of the whole main Himalayan range.     

Plagioclase microfabrics in a ductile shear zone from the Jotun Nappe,Norway

Gabbroic and anorthositic rocks from the Jotun Nappe are transected by small ductile shear zones in which a high-grade paragenesis and a new foliation are formed. Most plagioclase grains show evidence of plastic deformation, and have recrystallized by subgrain rotation and ‘bulge’ processes to fine-grained mylonite. During these processes a plagioclase grain-shape fabric was destroyed, and with increasing strain a pre-existing plagioclase crystal fabric was successively modified, enhanced and finally obliterated. This could be evidence of superplastic flow. Inverse pole figure analysis of the typical plagioclase crystal fabric in the shear zone indicates that (021) ⊥ 〈a〉 could be an operative slip system, and planes close to (132) could be possible slip planes.     

某水电站坝基岩体结构面室内大型直剪试验研究

岩体结构面的抗剪强度是表征岩体强度的一项重要参数,但由于原位试验受场地等诸多因素影响,难以大规模的开展,本文提出在室内用结构面大型剪切试验开展结构面的剪切特性研究,以某水电站坝基砂岩岩体中的硬性结构面为研究对象,取得了较好的成果。试验表明:结构面的多组剪切变形曲线具有一定的应变硬化的特征;达到峰值剪切强度时的剪切位移普遍较大,在8.9mm～44.5mm之间;砂岩中硬性结构面光滑面的基本摩擦角为31.4,结构面平均起伏角为6.3。     

H Odé剪切变形理论在纳米尺度的表象

通常认为岩石是被剪破或张裂的,那么,为何我们能寻觅到位于同压力垂直方向的破裂构造呢?H Odé剪切变形理论给出一个精辟的回答:在塑性或粘-弹性变形中,由于介质的分异作用,存在一个从屈服条件中获得的速度不连续性,这样,其介质就能沿着等速的特征面剪切滑移.该理论亦称为塑性剪切作用准则,之前是从宏观-直观力学表象予以验证,如构造挤压带的破裂面、正压力下Griffith裂隙端点裂开和垂直压力下的碎裂流动等.进而,我们对花岗岩标本实施高温/高压实验,并取其位于轴压垂直方向裂隙的薄壳表层做扫描电镜观测.然后把从其表层观察的具有H Odé力学表象的微纳米现象,同一般剪切作用的屈服效应结构,从3个方面相比较鉴别.（1）粘-弹性变形:高温-高压的实验样品更容易产生塑性压缩容积流动,不仅具粘性也具弹性变形,随之,样品可展现纳米涂层作用和纳米分层作用.（2）纳米尺度结构:纳米尺度颗粒能成为单一纳米粒-纳米线-纳米层结构,且复体的纳米粒可细分成粒状的、线状的和片粒状的结构等.（3）有序组构:尽管H Odé破裂的粒化流动和纹理流动的优选方位,同普通剪切作用相比,处于弱势范畴,然而综合分析观之,这两者的屈服特征是完全一致的.反之,我们应用H Odé剪切理论去研究一些非常规的变形现象,必能拓展纳米地质学的研讨范畴和认知能力.