Characterization and use of tropical gravels for pavement construction in West Africa

Summary Road transportation is increasingly becoming one of the key factors for promoting economic growth in most developing countries. However, transport and road research in the tropics has received relatively little attention. Experiences in road construction in the tropics within the past 50 years or so have established that local materials specifications and pavement construction technologies have to be developed in relation to the climatic conditions. This would involve knowledge of the processes of formation as well as genetic characteristics of the local gravels. Genetic characteristics exert considerable influence on the geotechnical properties and engineering behaviour of local gravels under pavement. The construction technology of the road pavement should take cognizance of the compositional variabilities of the gravel deposits. Construction studies of pavement sections (as well as assessment of the performance of existing roads) built with different gravels formed over different geological formations in specific climatic, and drainage conditions would provide useful data for evolving local gravel specifications for constructing stable and durable pavements. Stage construction of pavements involving the exposure of the various layers to traffic loading and seasonal climatic influences appears to hold promise for formulating strategies for constructing stable, and long-term durable tropical roads. The problem of achieving reproducible laboratory test data under field conditions is perhaps the most challenging aspect of utilizing local gravels for pavement construction in tropical and sub-tropical conditions. It is noted that the stability of pavements in tropical environments depends not so much on the geotechnical properties of the available gravels as on the appreciation by the designers and construction engineers of the relationship between the genetic and laboratory determined characteristics of the gravels on the one hand and the pavement construction technology and local climatic and drainage conditions on the other. This paper is a contribution to development of highway geotechnics for tropical and sub-tropical conditions.     

Development of acceptance specifications for tropical gravel paving materials

The ideal standard grading specification for gravels was meant to ensure high density and stability, and specifications on maximum limits of content of fines, liquid limit and plasticity index were meant to control the magnitude of swell of materials in the pavement structure.Experience in Ghana and elsewhere in the tropics has shown that specifications based only on these index properties may be misleading. For example, the strength criterion based upon minimum soaked CBR of 80% for separating sub-base and base gravel materials has been found to be more critical and makes it possible to modify the allowable maximum fines content, liquid limit and plasticity index for the residual gravels studied.Material selection, field compaction (construction) control and long-term field performance studies on two trunk roads were analysed.Limiting values of index properties for separating these gravels into sub-base and base course materials for pavement construction in a moist sub-humid climatic environment was proposed. For example, the maximum fines content, liquid limit and plasticity index for accepting these gravels for base course construction were increased from 10, 25 and 6% to 12.5, 37.5 and 10%, respectively.The importance of using the products of fines content and plasticity parameters for selecting these gravels was also established.     

Quality control tests and acceptance specifications for concretionary laterite gravel aggregates

In most tropical countries, good and poor concretionary laterite gravels are distinguished solely on the basis of the aggregate impact-strength specifications of the British Standards Institute. Acceptance limits of other aggregate properties (e.g., absorption, specific gravity, etc.) require modifications, because of the peculiar structure and mineralogy of laterite gravels. This paper presents the results of a laboratory study undertaken to develop other quality-control tests and their acceptance limits to supplement the aggregate impact-strength test in evaluating the quality of laterite gravel aggregates.

Commonly used concretionary laterite gravels from across Nigeria were used for this study. The laboratory tests performed included sorption tests, density, abrasion, slake durability, Iowa pore index, aggregate impact value, wet-dry cycles and chemical composition. The test results were subjected to bivariant correlation and multivariant stepwise regression-statistical analyses.

The study revealed that the ratio of silica to oxides of iron and aluminum, which is known to have a dominating influence on the physico-mechanical properties of laterite gravels can be predicted with reasonable accuracy from the specific gravity. Similarly, abrasion resistance, aggregate impact strength (dry and wet) and durability under wetting and drying cycles can be estimated from empirical multiple-regression relations, involving simple tests such as sorption, density and Iowa pore index (pore-size indexes). These simple tests, therefore, constitute additional quality-control tests.

Four quality grades — excellent, good, fair and poor — were established on the basis of the impact strength. The limits of acceptability for each of the recommended simple quality-control test were computed from the relevant linear-regression equations. The main advantage of the proposed new quality-control tests and acceptance limits is the quantitative approach and the ability to recognize four quality grades instead of the usual two. This enables a better selection of laterite gravels for various categories of constructions.     

Properties of Ironstone Lateritic Gravels in Relation to Gravel Road Pavement Construction

A laboratory investigation was conducted to determine properties of five samples of ‘oolitic ironstone’ lateritic gravel aggregates which are relevant to their use as road construction materials. Measured values of physico-chemical, physico-mechanical as well as index properties and compaction characteristics are similar to those of other lateritic, gravels occurring in West Africa which are used in road pavement applications. These lateritic clayey gravels have good workability as engineering construction materials and are rated fair to good as road aggregates in terms of probable in-situ behaviour based on water absorption values. Relationships between maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content as well as those between California bearing ratio and some derived soil parameters such as grading modulus, plasticity product or plasticity modulus can be described using a third-order polynomial function. The maximum dry unit weight has a bimodal frequency distribution and can be predicted from logarithm to base 10 of compaction energy with fairly good accuracy.     

Investigation of solid waste soil as road construction material

The geotechnical properties of solid waste soils for use as sub-base materials in road construction were investigated. A series of field tests and laboratory tests were performed to assess the physical and mechanical properties of the solid waste soils sampled from a landfill site, near to a riverside, which had been reclaimed over the last two decades. The tests showed that geotechnical properties are clearly affected by the magnitude of organic matter content. As the organic matter content increases, the maximum dry unit weight, the shear strength and bearing capacity of ground decrease, while the void ratio and compressibility increase. If the organic matter content is more than about 8% in solid waste soils, it is not suitable for use as a sub-base material in road construction due to the significant decrease of shear strength and bearing capacity.     

基于椭球模型的圆砾堆积特性分析

堆积特性是颗粒形状、大小等因素的综合体现,也在一定程度上反映了颗粒集合体的力学特性。以河流冲积型圆砾土中主要占比的10～50 mm圆砾为对象,利用数字图像技术,通过对大样本圆砾颗粒的形态特征分析,选取轴向系数作为圆砾的形状特征参数,并据此提出了圆砾颗粒的椭球模型构建方法,建立了与实际圆砾料在形状和大小上同分布的圆砾椭球模型数据库,进而通过数值堆积试验分析了单粒组圆砾料的堆积特性,并与室内圆筒堆积物理试验进行对比。有以下结论：圆砾的形态特征主要体现在宏观轮廓形状,棱角特性不明显;圆砾堆积数值模拟结果表明,不同大小粒组圆砾堆积孔隙比变化较小;颗粒间摩擦系数对于堆积孔隙比有显著影响,摩擦系数介于0～0.4时,孔隙比变化剧烈,随后逐渐趋于平缓;室内圆筒堆积试验结果验证了椭球模型模拟圆砾堆积的有效性,标定了重力堆积条件下圆砾料颗粒间摩擦系数约为0.3。     

白垩系地层深井冻结壁温度场分布规律

西部地区主要为白垩系软岩地层, 煤炭资源储量大, 成为我国重要产煤区. 白垩系软岩地层冻结壁温度场分布规律尚不清楚, 给白垩系地层冻结法凿井设计与施工带了一定的困难. 通过现场实测、室内试验和数值模拟等手段, 获得了白垩系地层冻结软岩热物理参数分布规律、力学特性及深井冻结壁冻融规律. 测点冻结温度场反演白垩系冻结软岩导热系数值一般介于3.328~3.465 W·m^-1·K^-1之间, 现场实测表明: 白垩系地层融冻时间比一般为1.0~1.2之间. 研究白垩系地层冻融规律, 对指导我国西部地区白垩系地层冻结法凿井设计与施工具有重要的理论参考价值.     

五星形桩抗拔承载性能模型试验研究

五星形桩是一种新型的截面异形桩,是在圆桩基础上向内切割5个圆弧,形成截面类似五星形的一种桩型。利用自主研发的多功能桩基模型试验加载系统,砂雨法成桩,进行了4根五星形与圆形桩（周长最大化五星形桩F₁、周长面积比最大化五星形桩F₂、与F₂同截面周长的圆桩C₁、与F₂同截面面积的圆桩C₂）抗拔承载特性对比模型试验研究。试验结果表明:（1）五星形桩F₁与F₂的极限抗拔力基本相同,大圆桩C₁最大,小圆桩C₂最小。（2）大圆桩C₁的极限抗拔力是F₂的1.73倍,说明五星形截面形式对抗拔侧摩阻力产生了较明显的弱化。（3）小圆桩C₂的侧表面积是F₂的0.66倍,但其极限抗拔力是F₂的0.8倍,这进一步说明五星形截面形式对抗拔侧摩阻力有一定程度的弱化。但F₂的极限抗拔力是C₂的1.25倍,可见桩的截面形式由圆形转变为五星形可一定程度地提高抗拔承载能力。（4）抗拔侧摩阻力与上拔位移呈双曲线分布,仅需较小位移就可达到极值。     

高真空击密法在平潭综合实验区吹填软基处理效果评价

福建平潭综合实验区金井湾片区吹填场地面积大、工期紧,选用6.9×104m2具有代表性的区域采用高真空击密法进行加固试验研究。在软土地基处理前、处理施工结束后和处理施工结束5个月后,分别对地基土进行检测,并在施工结束后对表层吹填砂进行平板载荷试验,对淤泥层进行物理力学特性试验。研究表明:经过处理后,淤泥层锥尖阻力q_c的标准值提高52.6%,侧壁摩阻力f_s的标准值提高58.7%,不排水抗剪强度的标准值提高约60.3%,且深度6～7m的范围内的处理效果较为明显;土体物理力学特性有了不同程度的改善,干密度ρ_d的标准值提高了6.08%,孔隙比e的标准值减小了8.96%,压缩系数a_1-2的标准值减小了10.53%,压缩模量的标准值Es_1-2提高了12.18%,直接快剪的黏聚力c的标准值提高了8.91%,内摩擦角φ的标准值提高了41.01%,三轴（UU）试验的黏聚力c的标准值提高了33.04%;地基承载力由处理前的不足50kPa提高到大于120kPa,砂土层的液化特性被消除,满足地基处理要求。以上结论有助于该工法在平潭地区的推广和应用,具有一定的工程参考价值。     

岩溶区桥梁双桩基础有限元极限分析

为计算岩溶区桥梁双桩基础的极限承载力,根据极限分析的基本原理,结合有限元方法,基于MATLAB平台编制了相关计算程序。为描述岩体的非线性特点,采用修正的Hoek-Brown准则,并在优化计算过程中对其进行"双曲线近似"处理,解决了奇异点不可导的问题。在此基础上,分析了各参数对极限承载力系数N_σ的影响。结果表明:（1）N_σ随岩层上覆荷载、嵌岩深度增大而增大,但增长幅度不明显;（2）N_σ随溶洞半径增大而减小,随桩洞水平距离先增大后减小;（3）N_σ随GSI增大而非线性增大,与桩洞垂直距离、m_i大致呈线性关系;（4）当桩洞位置较近时,岩石重度对N_σ的影响可忽略不计;（5）破坏模式主要有,整体剪切破坏、左桩控制的冲切破坏、冲切破坏和地基破坏模式并存的联合破坏。最后,将本文计算结果与已有成果进行对比,验证了所提方法的正确性。     

岩浆岩砾石磨圆度地质意义的研究

定量地质学的兴起促进了地球科学的快速发展,但是国内外对砾石磨圆度与搬运距离之间定量关系的研究长期以来没有明显的进展。本次研究通过对永定河、碓臼峪、滦河和大石河四条河流进行系统的野外考察,从河流的出山口开始向下游设定考察点,详细描述各考察点砾石的磨圆度、粒度特征并进行统计分析,对岩浆岩砾石磨圆度与搬运距离的定量关系以及磨圆度的影响因素进行了研究。研究发现,岩浆岩砾石的磨圆度随着搬运距离的增大而变好,在搬运的初期变化最快,而后逐渐缓慢下来,最终磨圆度趋于稳定。岩浆岩砾石由棱角状变为次棱角状一般需要搬运3~6 km,由次棱角状变为次圆状一般要搬运12~21 km,圆状砾石大量出现至少要搬运22~31 km。砾石的磨圆度受搬运距离、母岩成分、粒度和破碎作用的影响。棱角状、次棱角状砾石容易被磨蚀,在搬运初期转化为次圆状、圆状,而圆状砾石不易磨蚀达到极圆状;岩浆岩砾石磨圆速度比石英快,比石灰岩慢;相同母岩成分的砾石,粗粒砾石比细粒砾石磨圆快;破碎作用则会降低砾石的磨圆度,使部分砾石呈现出与搬运距离不协调的磨圆特征。     

青藏高原南缘某机场场区深厚覆盖层工程地质特征

青藏高原南缘某拟建机场场区发育第四系深厚覆盖层,对该工程建设具有较大的制约作用.钻孔资料显示,该深厚覆盖层普遍分布于整个场区,厚度均在30 m以上,最大孔深105 m仍未揭穿.纵向上深厚覆盖层由上而下可划分为4层:全新世泥石流堆积层(Qsef4)、全新世冲洪积堆积层(Qal+pl4)、全新世湖相堆积层(Ql4)和晚更新...     

四川攀枝花昔格达组下伏砾石层成因和时代探讨与古金沙江河谷发育

本文主要描述和讨论了四川省攀枝花市沿金沙江分布、并以炳草岗地龙箐剖面为代表的昔格达组湖相沉积下伏的砾石层的沉积特征及其河流相成因.根据前人对昔格达组湖相沉积的磁性地层学研究结果,为4.2/3.28～2.6/2.12/1.78 MaBP的上新世中、晚期或至早更新世早期,表明其下伏厚达50 m的砾石层的形成时代约为4.2～4.5/5 MaBP的上新世早期.早上新世金沙江河流相砾石层在接近金沙江谷底位置的发现,表明金沙江很早就已经从青藏高原主夷平面下切了2000 m以上、已在接近其现今谷底的位置上存在.这对于探讨古金沙江的河谷发育及其与青藏高原隆升的关系,具有重要的指示意义.     

砂砾岩水力压裂裂缝扩展规律的数值模拟分析

砂砾岩储层一般具有岩性和渗透性变化大、孔隙度低、连通性差、孔隙结构复杂和非均匀性严重等特点,因此,在水力压裂过程中,裂缝扩展形态难以控制,大规模改造难度大。针对国内某典型砂砾岩油藏特征,采用数值计算方法对砂砾岩压裂裂缝的扩展规律进行了研究,包括地应力场、砾石含量和粒径等对裂缝扩展形态及压裂压力的影响。研究表明,砾石的存在增加了压裂裂纹扩展的复杂性,裂纹主要有止裂、偏转、穿透和吸附4种表现模式,但主应力差严格控制着裂纹的走向,随着主应力差的增大,裂纹由总体绕砾扩展转变为总体穿砾扩展,失稳压力随着主应力差的增大而明显减小;砾石含量的多少体现了砂砾岩试样宏观的非均匀性,含量越高均匀性越差,随着砾石含量的提高,裂纹与砾石的相互作用占据主导地位,失稳压力随砾石含量的增加而增大;当砾石体积含量一定时,砾石粒径对压裂压力的影响主要取决于砾石排列的随机性,失稳压力随砾石粒径的增大而略有增大。     

Overconsolidation effects of ground freezing

Temporary ground freezing is a valuable technique for stabilizing soft soils during construction. It imparts large increases in strength and bearing capacity to most soils. However, freezing can cause significant changes in soil structure and density which can lead to adverse settlement during thaw.

Settlement of clay soils after freezing and thawing is the result of the suction forces that draw pore water to the freezing front. These suction forces cause an increase in the effective stress on the clay beneath the freezing front, and thus cause an overconsolidation of the clay. As these suction forces often exceed 1 atm, their direct measurement is not easy.

A technique for indirectly determining the maximum suction occurring during freezing is presented which utilizes the apparent memory that clay soils have for maximum past (preconsolidation) pressures. Suctions as large as 532 kN m⁻² were observed after freezing and thawing a clay soil which was initially consolidated to 128 kN m⁻².

The volume changes resulting from the freezing and thawing of clays were related to the plastic limit and were observed in the laboratory to be as high as 25%. If provisions are not made to account for these volume changes in a ground freezing project, considerable damage to structures can occur from settlement and the resulting stresses.     

The artificial freezing and cooling of soils at construction sites

The paper presents a short survey of large Soviet experience in the field of artificial freezing and cooling of soils. Some examples of artificial ground freezing used for the development of mineral deposits, in mining and coal industry, in subway construction are given.

A special field of the cold application in the construction is the cooling of soils which have already had the negative temperature. This engineering method is applied in permafrost regions for improving the strengthening properties of the weak soils used as the bases of structures.

In the USSR this method is used successfully for improving the bearing capacity of frozen soils and for the creation of frozen waterproof screens in hydrotechnical engineering as well. Some examples of the employment of this method are also given.     

The use of natural analogues to assess radionuclide transport

Predicting the long-term safety and performance of a repository for intermediate- to high-level radioactive wastes requires the evaluation of various scenarios which may influence the integrity of the repository system. One such scenario, radionuclide transport, is described, and some of the geochemical processes which serve to enhance or retard transport are illustrated with examples selected from natural analogue or natural system studies. These studies, as distinct from laboratory simulations, help considerably in understanding how near- and far-field radionuclide transport mechanisms work over geological timescales (thousands to hundreds of thousands of years), more in line with the anticipated lifespan of a repository.

Processes addressed include: stability of the spent fuel UO₂ matrix; bentonite backfill as a barrier to radionuclide diffusion; retention of radionuclides by absorption on fracture minerals; transport and diffusion of radionuclides controlled by interconnected bedrock porosity; geochemical influence and behaviour of repository construction materials on radionuclide transport.     

雅江流域碎石层动力触探试验研究

结合雅江流域上数个大中型工程实践，较系统地研究了雅江流域上碎石层动力触探试验数据，结果表明该区域碎石层可采用动力触探进行原位测试，并可按相关的规定和规范进行修正击数、查取承载力和变形模量。     

Modelling of the physical behaviour of clay barriers close to water saturation

The physical properties of bentonite-based buffer materials for nuclear waste repositories have been investigated by a number of different laboratory tests. These tests have yielded a material model that is valid for conditions close to water saturation and is useful for describing: (a) the stress, strain and volume change behaviour; (b) the pore pressure and flow of water; and (c) the thermal and thermomechanical response.

The material model is based on the Drucker-Prager Plasticity model and a Porous Elastic Model. The effective stress concept and Darcy's law are applied and the swelling/consolidation and thermomechanical processes are coupled according to the separate mechanical properties of the pore water, the solids and the clay skeleton. The model can be used by the finite-element program ABAQUS.

The model has been tested in several laboratory and field verification tests. Comparison between measured and calculated behaviour shows that the general behaviour is described properly and several calculations of different scenarios have been made for the Swedish KBS 3 concept. However, certain processes, like the hysteresis effect at consolidation/swelling, the curved stress-strain relation at shearing, and the curved failure envelope, are not modelled in a perfectly accurate way and an improved material model is proposed here. It combines the behaviour of the Cam-clay model on the wet side with the more relevant plastic behaviour of a modified Drucker-Prager model with a curved failure envelope and the possibility to introduce strain softening after failure.

The paper presents some laboratory results that are the basis of the first model. It also shows the application of the model to finite-element calculations of some laboratory tests. Comparisons between the calculations and measured results expose some disadvantages of the model and a concept for an improved model is suggested.     

Distribution and sources of obsidian in the Rio Grande gravels of New Mexico

The obsidian in the gravels deposited by the Rio Grande in New Mexico has interested archaeologists of the region, particularly the use of these gravels by prehistoric populations and the implications for obsidian sourcing studies. Previous investigations of Rio Grande gravel obsidian have focused on obsidian in the archaeological record. This study focuses on the natural occurrence and distribution of obsidian in the gravels and the implications for archaeological investigations. Spatial sampling of the gravels clearly indicate that obsidian, as well as other chipped stone material, is not uniformly distributed across the landscape. Geochemical analysis of the obsidian in the gravels establishes the true source constituents for the obsidian present in the gravels. The main source area for obsidian in the Rio Grande gravels is the Jemez Mountains, although some obsidian comes from Grant's Ridge, Polvadera, and No Aqua sources. Sources south of Mount Taylor, such as Red Hill and Mule Creek, do not occur in the Rio Grande gravels of southern New Mexico. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.