A sediment budget for the Choptank River estuary in Maryland,U.S.A.

A sediment budget for the Choptank River, one of the three largest estuaries on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, was developed from measurements of sediment carried in upland runoff, shore erosion, sedimentation, and levels of suspended sediments in estuarine waters. Shore erosion was the major source of sediment (340 × 10⁶ kg y^?1), contributing seven times more sediment than upland runoff. Low relief, the rural character of the Coastal Plain drainage basin, and the susceptibility of poorly consolidated shoreline materials to erosion contributed to the dominance of shore erosion over runoff as a sediment source. Box modelling indicated a net annual flux (14–44 × 10⁶ kg y^?1) of sediment from the Choptank River to Chesapeake Bay. A mass balance estimate of sedimentation, calculated as the difference between total inputs and loss at the mouth of the estuary, (350 × 10⁶ kg y^?1) agreed well with an estimate based on ²¹⁰Pb profiles (340 × 10⁶ kg y^?1) measured along the longitudinal axis of the estuary. Lead-210 sedimentation rates correspond to accumulation rates of 1·5–7·9 mm y^?1.     

The Influence of the Cockle, Cerastoderma edule, on the Macrozoobenthic Community of Tidal Flats in the Wadden Sea

Abstract. The cockle Cerastoderma edule is one of the large and important species of the tidal flats of the Wadden Sea. C. edule disturbs the upper sediment layer due to its crawling and “shaking” behaviour. About 7% of a cockle population move within one week. The mean distance of movement is -4 cm per week, which, in the case of a 2-year-old cockle with a length of ?3 cm, means that ?20 cm² of sediment is disturbed to a depth of ?3 cm. Besides these measurable movements, cockles also regularly “shake” themselves, thereby disturbing the sediment around them to at least ?0.5 cm. At a density of 500 cockles per m² of a mean length of 3 cm, ?16% of the sediment surface is occupied by cockles and another ?29% is disturbed by cockles within one week. To study the effects of cockles on recruitment of other benthic species, densities of 0, 125, 250, 375 and 500 cockles (mean length 3 or 3.5 cm) were added to 1-m² plots within large depopulated squares in April. Subsequently, sediment samples were sieved once a month (from June to September) and the densities of all macrozoobenthic species were estimated. The presence of cockles significantly reduced the densities of juveniles of the bivalve species C. edule, Macoma balthica, Mya arenaria, Tellina (Angulus) tenuis, and Ensis directus and of the worm species Pygospio elegans, Lanice conchilega, Eteone longa, Anaitides spec., Nephtys hombergii, Heteromastus filiformis, Scoloplos armiger, and Tharyx marioni and of the amphipods Corophium volutator and C. arenarium. Non-significant effects were found only in Capitella capitata and Nereis diversicolor. For all species mentioned above a negative effect was already observed at the lower cockle densities of 125 - 250 per m². Reductions of about 50% or more were found at densities of 500 per m², which was more than could be expected based on the area occupied by the cockles (?16%), but close to the area occupied plus disturbed (?45%). It is concluded that (dense) assemblages of adult cockles can have a strong influence on the macrozoobenthic community.     

Factors involved in growth plasticity of cockles Cerastoderma edule (L.), identified by field survey and transplant experiments

In Arcachon Bay, a macrotidal coastal lagoon in southwest France, growth rates of cockles Cerastoderma edule (L.) differ greatly between locations. Sampling of populations at different tidal levels showed that the mean shell length was significantly and positively correlated with immersion time, whereas no correlation was found with population density and microphytobenthos biomass. Transplants of cockles between two intertidal sites were used to examine the relative importance of habitat and site of origin for growth rate and condition index. Artifacts due to manipulation were assessed, i.e. the impact of enclosures on growth, conditon index and mortality. During a 5-mo reciprocal transplant experiment, growth rates of the transplanted cockles and the cockles already present were similar, whereas the sites of origin did not affect growth rate. Condition index, however, displayed significant differences in relation to both transplant and origin sites. During a further 6-mo experiment in which cockles were transplanted from one site to four new sites, growth was mainly influenced by tidal level. These results indicate that net growth started when cockles were immersed 30% of the time. It is concluded that, on the scale of Arcachon Bay (156 km²), differences in growth and condition between cockle populations are largely phenotypic. Tidal level (i.e. food supply and emersion stress) accounts for most of these differences, but the existence of genetically or physiologically different populations cannot be excluded.     

Shoreline response to a single shore-parallel submerged breakwater

Submerged breakwaters (SBWs) are becoming a popular option for coastal protection, mainly due to their low aesthetic impact on the natural environment. However, SBWs have rarely been employed for coastal protection in the past and therefore, their efficacy remains largely unknown. The main objective of the present study was to investigate the structural and environmental conditions that govern the mode of shoreline response (i.e shoreline erosion vs shoreline accretion) to SBWs. The relative importance of the key structural and environmental parameters governing the response mode to a single shore parallel SBW is investigated through a combination of theoretical analysis and numerical modelling. Using physical considerations, a theoretical response-function model is derived under several simplifying assumptions including parallel depth contours, linear wave theory, shore normal waves, and no wave–current interaction. Numerical modelling is undertaken with the Mike21 model suite to simulate the depth averaged velocity fields (without morphological updating) due to waves acting on a single shore-parallel SBW located on a schematised beach with parallel depth contours. In total 92 coupled wave–current simulations were undertaken. The results indicate that the mode of shoreline response to the SBW can be expressed in terms of the two non-dimensional parameters h_B/H₀ and (s_B/h_B)^3/2(L_B/h_B)²(A³/h_B)^1/2 (variables defined in the text).     

Effects of suction-dredging for cockles on non-target fauna in the Wadden Sea

Suction dredging for cockles removes large cockles from tidal flats and may also cause mortality of non-target fauna and make the habitat less suitable for some species. This study examines whether suction dredging for cockles on tidal flats of the Dutch Wadden Sea had affected densities of non-target fauna, directly after fishing and one year later. Densities of non-target fauna in two randomly chosen undredged locations were compared to densities at the surrounding heavily commercially dredged area. A significant negative effect of cockle dredging on densities of 0-group Macoma balthica was observed and this effect persisted one year after dredging. The dredged area appeared to be less suitable for settlement of mussels Mytilus edulis. No significant effects of dredging on the mudsnail Hydrobia ulvae and on 0 and 1-group C. edule were found. For the mobile young Macoma balthica it seems unlikely that the effect found after one year was still due to the mortality caused by dredging and this suggests that the habitat was less suitable as a consequence of dredging. Thus, even in the highly dynamic ecosystem of the Wadden Sea, effects of bottom disturbance by cockle dredging may persist after one year.     

A sediment and organic carbon budget for the greater Strait of Georgia

Recent efforts to construct global ocean budgets for carbon have recognized the importance of continental margins. In this study, we constructed budgets for the Strait of Georgia, a temperate, North American west coast basin that receives the inflow of one of the world's major rivers. Drawing from published and unpublished data, we have estimated the magnitude of the various sources and sinks of fresh water, sediment and organic carbon.The Fraser River is the dominant source of fresh water and particles to the strait, contributing approximately 73% of the 158×10⁹ m³ year⁻¹ of water and 64% of the 30×10⁹ kg year⁻¹ of particles. Other rivers supply most of the remainder, while rain, groundwater and anthropogenic sources of water and particles are negligible in comparison. Fresh water escapes the Strait of Georgia through Juan de Fuca Strait, but particulate inputs are approximately balanced by sedimentation within the greater Strait of Georgia, implying almost complete trapping of particles.Dissolved and particulate organic carbon are derived mainly from in situ primary production (855×10⁶ kg year⁻¹) and from the Fraser River (550×10⁶ kg year⁻¹). Other rivers contribute 200×10⁶ kg year⁻¹ of organic carbon, and anthropogenic sources (ocean dumping, sewage, pulp mills and aquaculture) a further 119×10⁶ kg year⁻¹. Particulate organic carbon is predominantly buried (428×10⁶ kg year⁻¹) or oxidized (90×10⁶ kg year⁻¹) in the sediments of the strait. About 70% of the organic carbon that enters or is produced in the strait is dissolved. Most of the dissolved organic carbon is oxidized within the strait (784×10⁶ kg year⁻¹), but the remainder (400×10⁶ kg year⁻¹) is exported to the Pacific Ocean. Although the particulate organic carbon budget by itself implies net autotrophy, dissolved organic carbon oxidation may make the Strait of Georgia slightly net heterotrophic.     

Growth and reproduction of the Japanese mantis shrimp, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oratosquilla oratoria</Emphasis> (De Haan 1844) in the coastal area of Tongyeong,Korea

Growth and reproduction of the Japanese mantis shrimp, Oratosquilla oratoria, were investigated in the Tongyeong, Korea from July 2014 to August 2015. A total of 2,621 samples (1,380 females and 1,241 males) were collected during the study period. Females were observed more frequently than males. The mean body length (BL) was 128.5 ± 0.38 mm in females and 126.9 ± 0.42 mm in males. The mean body weight (BW) was 31.2 ± 0.28 g in females and 31.1 ± 0.32 g in males. There was a significant difference in the length-frequency distribution between females and males. The relationship between BL and BW was lnBW = 2.85 × lnBL - 10.43 for females and lnBW = 2.87 × lnBL -10.52 for males. The gonadosomatic index (GSI) varied on a monthly basis. The GSI reached a maximum in May and a minimum in November. The highest values of the GSI coincided with the spawning period of O. oratoria. Larger individuals of O. oratoria have their spawning season earlier than smaller ones. The size at sexual maturity of females was estimated as 96.5 mm. The Von Bertalanffy growth function parameters were BL_∞ = 184.5 mm, K = 0.72 year^?1, C = 0.36 and WP = 0.45 for females and BL_∞ = 183.75 mm, K = 0.82 year^?1, C = 0.38 and WP = 0.22 for males. The growth of males was slightly faster than females. The present study will help with the fisheries management of O. oratoria based on ecological parameters.     

Flux of dissolved organic carbon and pore water through the substrate of a Spartina alterniflora marsh in North Carolina

The export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from a sandy substrate Spartina alterniflora marsh in North Carolina was studied from August 1982 to July 1983. DOC of the pore water was determined using a total organic carbon analyzer and was reliably estimated by measuring the absorbance of the pore water. DOC ranged between 1 and 6 mg l⁻¹ and was highest during summer and lowest in winter. Based on hydraulic conductivity calculations, over 34 000 1 year⁻¹ of pore water was exported through the 1×25 m transect perpendicular to a tidal creek. Most of this flux (over 90%) occurred within 2 m of the creek bank. Based on this pore water flux, belowground DOC export was only 1·52 g Cm⁻² year⁻¹.     

Heavy metal stress induced hyperglycemia in blue swimmer crab, Portunus pelagicus

The study was to find out the effect of cadmium and mercury on levels of hemolymph glucose, crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) and hepatopancreas glycogen in the blue swimmer crab Portunus pelagicus. The experiments were performed in both intact and eyestalk ablated crabs. Quantification of CHH was done by the indirect ELISA with the aid of primary anti-Carcinus maenas-CHH antibody. Higher glucose concentration was observed on exposure to 8×10^-6 of cadmium ((825.6±5.42) μg/mL) and 6×10^-6 of mercury ((90.5±6.25) μg/mL) after 48 h and 24 h respectively. Higher level of hemolymph glucose was observed in eyestalk intact crabs on exposure to cadmium and mercury than eyestalk ablated crabs. Decrease in the levels of CHH was observed in both eyestalk intact and ablated crabs on heavy metal exposure. Decline of the hepatopancreas glycogen level was also witnessed with the exposure to heavy metal, which validated its utilization in the production of glucose. Thus this study brings to light, the variations in hemolymph glucose, CHH and hepatopancreas glycogen on heavy metal stress. These carbohydrate metabolites can be used as biomarkers in assessing heavy metal contamination in water bodies.     

Impacts of Habitat Complexity on Physiology: Purple Shore Crabs Tolerate Osmotic Stress for Shelter

Purple shore crabs, Hemigrapsus nudus (Crustacea: Decapoda), can survive indefinitely in salinities of 8 (25% SW), but also tolerate short-term exposure to salinities as low as 2. In the laboratory their salinity preference range, determined from choice chamber experiments, is 22–32 and they can discriminate between pairs of salinities separated by a difference of 2. These crabs show a strong positive thigmotaxis and a weak negative phototaxis and tend to choose environments with available shelter. The presence of shelter significantly alters the behaviour of this species. When shelter is available the salinity preference range is 10–32. Even in salinities below this preference range, the presence of shelter prolongs the time spent in the lower test salinities. This change in behaviour has implications on the crab's physiology: the haemolymph osmolality falls to lower levels when crabs remain in low salinity under shelters. In the field, H. nudus is found in creeks with salinities close to freshwater and they may remain in this salinity for up to 11 h, if there are rocks under which to shelter. An increase in habitat complexity increases the number of crabs that are found within the creek. These crabs in the low salinity environment have a lower haemolymph osmolality than crabs on the nearby open shore. In H. nudus the behavioural selection of a shelter appears to outweigh the physiological costs associated with osmotic regulation of the body fluids. Therefore, the distribution of H. nudus in estuaries may depend more on the availability of suitable habitats rather than the salinity tolerance of this species.     

Detection of the water-soluble fraction of crude oil by the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus

The ability of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, to detect petroleum hydrocarbons was measured with behavioural techniques. When presented with a water-soluble fraction of Prudhoe Bay crude oil, blue crabs abruptly changed antennular orientation, began rhythmic beating of the maxillipedal flagellae, and increased antennular flicking rate. The threshold concentration at which 50% of the crabs detected the water-soluble fraction was 2 × 10^?6 mg/litre. The blue crab apparently can readily detect petroleum hydrocarbons at concentrations found in chronically polluted areas as well as oil spill situations.     

Catch and effort of the shore and skiboat linefisheries along the South African Eastern Cape Coast

An assessment of catch and effort in the Eastern Cape shore and skiboat linefisheries was undertaken between 1994 and 1996 by means of roving creel and access point surveys. Catch-and-effort data were obtained from direct observation of 3 273 shore-fishers, 172 recreational and 223 commercial skiboat outings. Total effort in the region was high at 903 186 fisher-days year^?1 in the shore fishery and 64 266 and 24 357 fisher-days year^?1 in the commercial and recreational skiboat sectors respectively. The fisheries are multispecies in nature. The shore fishery consisted of 66 species, the recreational skiboat fishery 44 species and the commercial skiboat fishery 48 species. Just 10 species accounted for 75, 83 and 90% of the catch of the shore, recreational and commercial skiboat fishery respectively. The average catch per unit effort (cpue) was low in all sectors, 1.15 kg fisher^?1 day^?1 in the shorefishery, 9.4 kg fisher^?1 day^?1 in the recreational skiboat fishery and 21.5 kg fisher^?1 day^?1 in the commercial skiboat fishery. Catch data showed that professional and club anglers are more successful fishers. Comparisons with historic records for Port Elizabeth revealed that the cpue in the shore fishery had declined markedly, whereas the total effort increase was negligible (0.1%). In addition, the species composition of the fishery has changed.     

Dominance of blue mussels versus consumer-mediated enhancement of benthic diversity

In the shallow subtidal of Kiel Fjord (western Baltic Sea), the blue mussel Mytilus edulis is the dominant competitor for space. Vertically suspended settlement substrata in the upper 6 m of the water column almost invariably become dominated by M. edulis within a few summer months. However, not all naturally available hard substrata bear mussel monocultures.In three in situ experiments we investigated the dominance of mussels and the influence of local consumers on establishment and dynamics of a benthic community: (a) the natural course of succession in the absence of benthic consumers was followed on vertically suspended settlement substrata, (b) settling plates were exposed to natural recruitment being either accessible or inaccessible to all benthic consumers, and (c) the three major local consumer species, viz. the shore crab Carcinus maenas, the starfish Asterias rubens and the periwinkle Littorina littorea, were enclosed separately in cages containing a settling panel to assess species-specific consumer effects on recruitment.The results illustrate that in this region of the Baltic Sea mussels do have the potential to dominate ungrazed substrata within a few weeks and that top-down effects (predation and grazing) may control community structure. While some species - mussels in particular - were suppressed by consumption, others seemed to benefit from the presence of consumers. Thus, barnacles and algae thrived when consumers were present. Blue mussels being the locally dominant competitor, the beneficial effects of consumers on barnacles and algae were presumably indirect ones through consumer-caused release from asymmetrical competition.The isolated effects of C. maenas, A. rubens and L. littorea, on recruitment differed in quality (positive vs. negative), quantity (strength of effect) and specificity. Barnacle recruitment was significantly reduced in the presence of both starfish and shore crabs. Diatom recruitment was significantly reduced by snails and shore crabs. Scyphozoan recruitment was significantly reduced by crabs only, but was significantly increased by snails. The influence of the shore crabs was most remarkable: recruitment by any potential coloniser species was impeded to a point where in the presence of single individuals of C. maenas the plates stayed perfectly clean macroscopically.     

Effects of macroalgal mats and hypoxia on burrowing depth of the New Zealand cockle (Austrovenus stutchburyi)

Macroalgal mats commonly occur in estuaries and sheltered embayments where they are thought to affect the oxygen conditions in the sediment, influence the geochemical process and influence the burrowing activity of bivalves. Laboratory experiments evaluated the effects of sediment hypoxia and algal mats on the burrowing ability and survival of the New Zealand cockle Austrovenus stutchburyi at 15 °C. Both dissolved oxygen concentration and time affected the burial depth of the cockles over the 12 days of the experiment. In hypoxic conditions (<2 mg L^?1), cockles migrated to the sediment surface after 3.5 days and mortality occurred after 11 days. Bivalves exposed to oxygen concentrations of 2–3 mg L^?1 buried closer to the sediment surface than those in the other treatments. Using a simulated tidal regime, in a mesocosm, burrowing behaviour of the cockle and pore-water oxygen conditions in the sediment were measured on exposure to experimental mats of Gracilaria chilensis and Ulva spp. for over 6 days. Algal mats on the surface of the sediment significantly lowered the dissolved oxygen concentration of the sediment pore-water and this effect was greater for the Ulva spp. treatment than the G. chilensis treatment. Cockles were buried more deeply in the control treatment without algae than in either of the two algal treatments. It is concluded that reduced oxygen conditions (<3.5 mg L^?1) develop under macroalgal mats and that this reduces the burial depth of cockles. The potential harmful effects of the mats can depend on the species forming the mat and these effects are likely to be greater in the field than they are in controlled laboratory conditions.     

Population biology and secondary production of the harvested clam Tivela mactroides (Born, 1778) (Bivalvia,Veneridae) in Southeastern Brazil

The population structure, growth and production of the trigonal clam Tivela mactroides were investigated by monthly sampling between January 2003 and October 2004 in two areas (southern and northern) of the intertidal and subtidal zones of Caraguatatuba Bay, Southeastern Brazil. Intertidal sampling was carried out in each area along eight transects perpendicular to the shoreline. In the subtidal zone of both areas, one 50‐m dredging was performed along five sampling stations arranged on three transects perpendicular to the coast. The intertidal abundance of T. mactroides was higher in the southern (more dissipative conditions) than in the northern area. High abundances occurred in February–March 2004 in the south and in September 2004 in the north. The size structure showed that younger individuals dominated in the sublittoral, indicating that recruitment occurs in this zone, followed by the migration of these individuals to the intertidal, where they complete their life cycle. Tivela mactroides showed continuous reproduction, with 26 cohorts detected in the study period. The lower estimates for the growth index (?′ = 3.22), mortality rate (Z = 2.10 year^?1) and turnover rate (P/B = 1.21 year^?1), and conversely the longer life span (2.5 years) of T. mactroides in Caraguatatuba Bay (24°S) compared with Venezuelan populations (10°N) suggests a latitudinal pattern of these life‐history traits. The high production of T. mactroides in Caraguatatuba Bay was due to continuous recruitment and rapid and continuous growth, and demonstrates the importance of T. mactroides as a biological resource for many marine species and for the local residents.     

Nitrogen excretion by the Cape rock lobster Jasus lalandii and its possible contribution to the inshore Benguela System

The Cape rock lobster Jasus lalandii is a major predator in the inshore Benguela system. The mean density and biomass at Oudekraal is 0,48 individuals ·m^?2 or 49,75 g dry mass ·m^?2. The main component of its diet is Aulacomya ater, the ribbed mussel, which has a mean biomass of 1,15 kg dry mass ·m^?2. Daily consumption of carbon and nitrogen from this source reaches a maximum in summer and, when J. lalandii feed on mussels, 14,1 per cent of the flesh is lost to the environment as a result of "messy feeding". The absorption efficiency of ingested nitrogen is 86,2 per cent. Ammonia and urea excreted in the first 12 h after feeding represent 6,7 and 1,6 per cent respectively of the nitrogen ingested. Endogenous nitrogen excretion has a mean rate of 1,9 μg N·g (dry mass)^?1·h^?1 The range of estimates for combined figures of kelp and phytoplankton nitrogen requirements are 76,4 – 86,7 g N·m^?2·year^?1 J. lalandii returns 6,3 g N·m^?2·year^?1 to the system, accounting for 7,2 – 8,2 per cent of annual kelp and phytoplankton requirements. This could be of particular importance during downwelling when the supply of new nitrogen is limited.     

Offshore sand sources for beach replenishment: Potential borrows on the continental shelf of the Eastern Gulf of Mexico

Erosion of sandy beaches is a worldwide problem that elicits innovative geoengineer‐ing techniques to reduce adverse impacts of shoreline retreat. Beach replenishment has emerged as the “soft”; shore‐stabilization technique of choice for mitigating beach erosion. This method of shore protection involves the addition of sand to the littoral sediment budget for sacrificial purposes. Because inland sand sources are often uneconomical or impractical to use, and known nearshore sources are limited, finding adequate quantities of suitable sand on the inner continental shelf is often vital to beach replenishment projects. The technical studies of survey and materials analysis that identify and delineate usable sand sources are sometimes almost as expensive as small‐project dredging, pumping, and placing the sand on the beach as fill. Inadequate quantity or substandard quality of shelf sand, as well as often‐prohibitive overhead expenses, thus compel shoreline managers to seek suitable sand sources offshore.

In the study area off the central‐west coast of Florida, offshore potential borrow areas (PBAs) were identified on the basis of studies conducted in reconnoitory and detailed phases. Sophisticated state‐of‐the‐art equipment used in this investigation provided more detailed subbottom mapping information than is normally obtained with conventional seismic equipment. An example of sand exploration studies was incorporated in a 215‐km² survey of offshore areas by conducting bathymetric surveys and subbottom seismic profiling, collecting jet probes, grab samples, and vibrocores, and analyzing sediment grading in subsamples from vibrocores. These combined analyses indicated that at least 8.8 ×10⁶ m³ of sand is available in potential borrow areas from 7.0 to 12 km offshore in water depths of 8.0 to 11.5 m. In the PBAs, mean grain size of sand falls into the range 0.13–0.53 mm, sorting averages 0.65–1.31ø, and the overall silt content varies from 3.9–8.5%. High silt contents (13–19%) mapped in some areas make these sedimentary deposits unsuitable as fill for artificial beach renourishment.     

Elucidating cellular and behavioural effects of contaminant impact (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,PAHs) in both laboratory-exposed and field-collected shore crabs,Carcinus maenas (Crustacea: Decapoda)

Monitoring effects of contaminants at lower levels of biological organisation (e.g. biochemical and cellular) allows for mechanistic evaluation of effects of contaminant exposure through laboratory exposures. However, higher level organism effects (e.g. physiological and behavioural) are deemed more ecologically-relevant. In the present study, cellular (cell viability and immune function), physiological (cardiac activity) and behavioural (foraging behaviour) responses were evaluated in field-collected shore crabs Carcinus maenas from three estuaries [a ‘relatively’ (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) PAH-contaminated site (Plym Estuary) and two ‘comparatively clean’ field sites (Avon and Yealm Estuaries)] and compared with responses of crabs exposed in the laboratory to a model organic contaminant (PAH) pyrene (200 μg l⁻¹ for 28 days). The hypothesis that behavioural indicators may be more sensitive than other more traditional methods was tested. No significant impacts were observed at the cellular or physiological level in Plym-collected crabs (the ‘relatively’ contaminated site), but foraging behaviour was significantly altered (increased prey handling time) compared to individuals collected from the ‘relatively’ uncontaminated sites (Avon and Yealm). When given a cockle as a prey item, both Plym-collected and laboratory-exposed crabs took longer to handle and break into cockle shells. Therefore, ecologically-relevant behavioural observations may serve as valuableindicators of environmental quality.     

Variations in crab claw morphology and diet across contrasting inter‐tidal habitats

Crabs are important predators of inter‐tidal ecosystems, controlling the abundance and distribution of their prey populations. Often the same crab species occupies several habitats and, although their effects on prey have been quantified across habitats, crabs’ dietary and morphological responses to differing environmental influences have been overlooked. Here, we used the crabs Eriphia verrucosa and Pachygrapsus marmoratus as model species to examine differences in claw morphometry – size and wear – and diet between rocky shore and heterogeneous sand flat habitats. We predicted that, intra‐specifically, crabs from rocky shores would consume more hard‐shelled prey owing to their high availability and consequently, would display chelipeds with the following claw characteristics: a higher degree of claw damage, stronger musculature (higher propel height) and increased mechanical advantage (defined as the ratio of input lever length to output lever length) than crabs in the heterogeneous sand flat habitats. Sampling was performed in heterogeneous sand flat habitats and rocky shores of the Central Portuguese coast. For each crab species, carapace width, diet composition and several claw morphometric measures were recorded, revealing significant intra‐specific differences (using multivariate analysis) between shore types. We found that E. verrucosa and P. marmoratus consumed more hard prey on rocky shore than on sand flat habitats, which resulted in rocky shore crabs having more accentuated dentition wear and larger musculature than their sand flat habitat counterparts. We suggest that the strong response of crab claw morphometry to environmentally induced diet variations is an important mechanism in the successful adaptation of crab species to inhabit differing habitats. A major implication is that the impact of the same species on prey may vary largely with habitat type as a result of predation efficiency varying with claw condition.     

Reduced survivorship of Himasthla (Trematoda, Digenea)-infected cockles (Cerastoderma edule) exposed to oxygen depletion

Bivalve populations from inshore waters often accommodate a diverse trematode fauna that may have a variety of effects on host specimens. In particular, larval trematodes that grow or reproduce within their host are known to be severe pathogens, whereas trematodes utilising bivalves only for encystment are thought to be relatively benign. Yet this may depend on the environmental conditions, and it can be expected that such trematodes in concert with other stress agents can be detrimental to host organisms. To examine the impact of such larval trematodes on hosts subjected to stress, we studied the digenetic trematode Himasthla elongata and one of its second intermediate hosts, the bivalve Cerastoderma edule. Experimentally infected cockles and non-infected cockles were exposed to oxygen depletion, whereupon we measured their burrowing ability and survivorship. After 30 h of hypoxia, the survival of infected cockles was significantly reduced compared to non-infected cockles, whereas no effect of parasites on cockles under normoxic conditions was found. In addition, parasites tended to reduce the burrowing ability of cockles exposed to hypoxia but the effect was not clear. The effect of parasites and possible ecological consequences are discussed and it is suggested that the combined effects of parasites and oxygen deficiency may explain some hitherto unexplained cases of mass mortalities in bivalve populations.