The effect of clay distribution on the elastic properties of sandstones

The shape and location of clay within sandstones have a large impact on the P‐wave and S‐wave velocities of the rock. They also have a large effect on reservoir properties and the interpretation of those properties from seismic data and well logs. Numerical models of different distributions of clay – structural, laminar and dispersed clay – can lead to an understanding of these effects. Clay which is located between quartz grains, structural clay, will reduce the P‐wave and S‐wave velocities of the rock. If the clay particles become aligned or form layers, the velocities perpendicular to the alignment will be reduced further. S‐wave velocities decrease more rapidly than P‐wave velocities with increasing clay content, and therefore Poisson's ratios will increase as the velocities decrease. These effects are more pronounced for compacted sandstones. Small amounts of clay that are located in the pore space will have little effect on the P‐wave velocity due to the competing influence of the density effect and pore‐fluid stiffening. The S‐wave velocity will decrease due to the density effect and thus the Poisson's ratio will increase. When there is sufficient clay to bridge the gaps between the quartz grains, P‐wave and S‐wave velocities rise rapidly and the Poisson's ratios decrease. These effects are more pronounced for under‐compacted sandstones. These general results are only slightly modified when the intrinsic anisotropy of the clay material is taken into account. Numerical models indicate that there is a strong, nearly linear relationship between P‐wave and S‐wave velocity which is almost independent of clay distribution. S‐wave velocities can be predicted reasonably accurately from P‐wave velocities based on empirical relationships. However, this does not provide any connection between the elastic and petrophysical properties of the rocks. Numerical modelling offers this connection but requires the inclusion of clay distribution and anisotropy to provide a model that is consistent with both the elastic and petrophysical properties. If clay distribution is ignored, predicting porosities from P‐wave or S‐wave data, for example, can result in large errors. Estimation of the clay distribution from P‐wave and S‐wave velocities requires good estimates of the porosity and clay volume and verification from petrographic analyses of core or cuttings. For a real data example, numerical models of the elastic properties suggest the predominance of dispersed clay in a fluvial sand from matching P‐wave and S‐wave velocity well log data using log‐based estimates of the clay volume and porosity. This is consistent with an interpretation of other log data.     

利用含可控裂缝人工岩样研究裂缝密度对各向异性的影响

利用新方法制作出含可控裂缝的双孔隙人工砂岩物理模型,具有与天然岩石更为接近的矿物成分、孔隙结构和胶结方式,其中裂缝密度、裂缝尺寸和裂缝张开度等裂缝参数可以控制以得到实验所需要的裂缝参数,岩样具有真实的孔隙和裂缝空间并可以在不同饱和流体状态下研究流体性质对于裂缝介质性质的影响.本次实验制作出一组具有不同裂缝密度的含裂缝人工岩样,对岩样利用SEM扫描电镜分析可以看到真实的孔隙结构和符合我们要求的裂缝参数,岩样被加工成八面棱柱以测量不同方向上弹性波传播的速度,用0.5 MHz的换能器使用透射法测量在饱和空气和饱和水条件下各个样品不同方向上的纵横波速度,并得出纵横波速度、横波分裂系数和纵横波各向异性强度受裂缝密度和饱和流体的影响.研究发现流体对于纵波速度和纵波各向异性强度的影响较强,而横波速度、横波分裂系数和横波各向异性强度受饱和流体的影响不大,但是对裂缝密度的变化更敏感.     

解耦纵横波反射波走时反演

基于常规弹性波动方程的反射波走时反演结合走时和反射波信息可以有效的摄取模型参数中的低波数成分,然而纵横波之间的耦合效应以及纵横波速度对波场的敏感性差异,导致反演的非线性问题增强.为此本文研究了基于解耦波动方程的反射波走时反演,并提出改进的时移互相关目标函数,分别隐式计入射波场快照与反传波场快照的时移量,很大程度的降低了纵波、横波之间的耦合关系,并提高纵横波速度低波数信息的反演质量.最后模型测试证明了本文方法的正确性.     

Effects of wave-wave and wave-mean flow interactions on the evolution of a baroclinic wave

Abstract

The weakly nonlinear evolution of a free baroclinic wave in the presence of slightly supercritical, vertically sheared zonal flow and a forced stationary wave field that consists of a single zonal scale and an arbitrary number of meridional harmonics is examined within the context of the conventional two-layer model. The presence of the (planetary-scale) stationary wave introduces zonal variations in the supercriticality and is shown to alter the growth rate and asymptotic equilibrium of the (synoptic-scale) baroclinic wave via two distinct mechanisms: The first is due to the direct interaction of the stationary wave with the shorter synoptic wave (wave-wave mechanism), and the second is due to the interaction of the synoptic wave with that portion of the mean field that is corrected by the zonally rectified stationary wave fluxes (wave-mean mechanism). These mechanisms can oppose or augment each other depending on the amplitude and spatial structure of the stationary wave field. If the stationary wave field is confined primarily to the upper (lower) layer and consists of only the gravest cross-stream mode, conditions are favorable (unfavorable) for nonzero equilibrium of the free wave.

In addition to the time dependent heat flux generated by baroclinic growth of the free wave, its interaction with a stationary wave field consisting of two or more meridional harmonics generates time dependent heat fluxes that vary with period of the free wave. However, if the stationary wave field contains several meridional harmonics of sufficiently large amplitude, the free baroclinic wave is destroyed.     

Modelling the impact of a time-varying wave angle on the nonlinear evolution of sand bars in the surf zone

Sandy beaches are often characterized by the presence of sand bars, whose characteristics (growth, migration speed, etc.) strongly depend on offshore wave conditions, such as wave height and angle of wave incidence. This study addresses the impact of a sinusoidally time-varying wave angle of incidence with different time-means on the saturation height, migration speed and longshore spacing of sand bars. Model results show that shore-transverse sand bars (so-called TBR bars) eventually develop under a time-varying wave angle. Depending on the time-mean, amplitude and period of the varying angle of wave incidence, the mean heights and mean migration speeds of the bars can be larger or smaller than their corresponding values in the case of time-invariant angles. Bars might not even form when the wave angle varies around a too large oblique mean value, whereas bars exist in the case of a time-invariant wave angle. The oscillations in both bar height and migration speed are large if the period of the time-varying wave angle is close to the adjustment timescale of the system and if large differences in the local growth and migration rates of the bars occur during one oscillation period. The oscillations in bar height are a combination of harmonics with the principal period and half the period of the time-varying wave angle, whereas those of migration speed contain only the principal period. Bars that are subject to time-varying wave angles have larger longshore crest-to-crest spacings than those which form under fixed wave angles. Physical explanations for these findings are given. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd     

基于波场垂向和水平方向外推的高陡构造偏移

常规的单程波波动方程偏移成像方法对大角度的高陡构造偏移成像存在内在的限制.根据波动方程在各个空间方向的数学特性和高陡构造反射地震波的传播特征,通过把地震波分解为垂向的上下行波、水平方向的前后行波和左右行波,提出基于波场垂向外推和水平方向外推相结合的单程波波动方程高陡构造偏移成像方法,即用波场垂向外推的单程波波动方程偏移成像方法解决中低角度平缓构造的偏移成像,用波场水平方向外推的单程波波动方程偏移成像方法解决中高角度陡倾构造的偏移成像.这种基于波场垂向和水平方向外推相结合的高陡构造偏移成像方法是常规单程波波动方程叠前深度偏移成像方法的补充和改进,它相对基于全波方程的逆时偏移具有计算效率上的优势.     

单极源钻铤波传播机制的实验研究

为了研究随钻声波测井中单极源钻铤波的传播特性,本文在水池中进行了缩小尺寸的随钻声波测井实验.首先建立了实验室内高分辨的数据采集系统(24位分辨率/1.25 MS/s采样率)和高精度三维运动控制系统(最小移动步长0.5mm),并通过测量声源和接收换能器之间直达流体声波信号,验证了声源/接收探头和实验测量系统的有效性.之后对4种实验模型下单极源激发钻铤波的传播规律进行了实验分析,分别在钻铤内部和钻铤外流体中记录了钻铤波信号,重点分析了不同情况下钻铤内部直达钻铤波和钻铤外部泄漏钻铤波的幅值差异性及产生原因,讨论了泄漏钻铤波沿着井轴方向和直径方向的衰减规律.实验结果表明:钻铤波在声源和钻铤分离情况下依旧可以激发很强的钻铤波,但当钻铤被截断后两部分钻铤波同时消失,在截断位置转化成流体声波波群继续向前传播.此外,通过定量分析两部分钻铤波的幅值特性发现,泄漏钻铤波的幅值约为直达钻铤波幅值的1/4,两者处于同一量级,因此,泄漏钻铤波对测量纵横波的干扰是不可忽略的,进而本文提出一种随钻声波测井接收器的布置方法,以有效削弱测井全波中直达钻铤波和泄漏钻铤波信号的幅度.本文实验结果对认识单极源钻铤波的激发和传播机制具有重要意义.     

金沙江龙蟠右岸变形体的地震学研究

拟建中的虎跳峡水电站水库蓄水后距虎跳峡上游20 km处的龙蟠右岸变形体是否会突然失稳崩滑为许多人关注.本文在折射波勘探方法获得龙蟠变形体底界形态、埋深、规模的基础上,进一步利用折射波勘探已经采集的炮集记录识别的反射波、面波、折射波等来研究变形体的内部结构和弹性及非弹性参数,获得变形体内部存在纵向横向结构的依据以及面波和折射波衰减系数,进而估算了变形体介质横波和纵波的非弹性性质参数与弹性性质参数的比值分别为0000184和0000144.由此判断水库蓄水后因变形体介质大量孔隙充水,造成孔隙压增加和剪切强度降低,进而导致变形体可能发生稳定非弹性变形或滑动,但稳定变形或滑动是否会演化成突然的非稳定滑动尚缺乏资料的支持.     

Influence of wave activity on the composition of the polar stratosphere

The planetary wave impact on the polar vortex stability, polar stratosphere temperature, and content of ozone and other gases was simulated with the global chemical–climatic model of the lower and middle atmosphere. It was found that the planetary waves propagating from the troposphere into the stratosphere differently affect the gas content of the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere. In the Arctic region, the degree of wave activity critically affects the polar vortex formation, the appearance of polar stratospheric clouds, the halogen activation on their surface, and ozone anomaly formation. Ozone anomalies in the Arctic region as a rule are not formed at high wave activity and can be registered at low activity. In the Antarctic Regions, wave activity affects the stability of polar vortex and the depth of ozone holes, which are formed at almost any wave activity, and the minimal ozone values depend on the strong or weak wave activity that is registered in specific years.     

Impact of sea-level rise and coral mortality on the wave dynamics and wave forces on barrier reefs

A one-dimensional wave model was used to investigate the reef top wave dynamics across a large suite of idealized reef-lagoon profiles, representing barrier coral reef systems under different sea-level rise (SLR) scenarios. The modeling shows that the impacts of SLR vary spatially and are strongly influenced by the bathymetry of the reef and coral type. A complex response occurs for the wave orbital velocity and forces on corals, such that the changes in the wave dynamics vary reef by reef. Different wave loading regimes on massive and branching corals also leads to contrasting impacts from SLR. For many reef bathymetries, wave orbital velocities increase with SLR and cyclonic wave forces are reduced for certain coral species. These changes may be beneficial to coral health and colony resilience and imply that predicting SLR impacts on coral reefs requires careful consideration of the reef bathymetry and the mix of coral species.     

On the variability of the Charnock constant and the functional dependence of the drag coefficient on wind speed

A model for the air–sea interface, based on the coupled pair of similarity relations for “aerodynamically” rough flow in both fluids, is presented, which is applied to fetch-limited and high wind speed conditions which occur, for example, in hurricanes. It is shown that the specification of the maximum 10-m drag coefficient and the 10-m wind speed and the peak wave speed at which it occurs are sufficient to uniquely determine the drag law, which asymptotes at low wind speeds to a Charnock constant similar to that for the fully developed wind wave sea and is almost independent of the peak wave speed at the maximum in drag coefficient. A feature of the drag law is that it is of Charnock form, almost independent of the wave age, consistent with the transfer of momentum to the wave spectrum being due to the smaller rather than the dominant wavelengths. The analysis is also applied to a variable sea state in which either the surface wind or the surface Stokes drift vary, but the peak wave speed is kept constant. The corresponding variability in the Charnock constant is in general accord with observations.     

利用横波分裂分析方法研究地壳各向异性综述

利用横波分裂分析获取地下介质的各向异性参数,已成为研究壳幔介质变形特征最为有效的方法之一。本文首先介绍横波分裂理论方程的推导过程;然后阐述目前几种较为常用的拾取横波分裂参数的方法;最后总结近年来横波分裂分析方法的发展现状及其在地壳介质各向异性研究方面取得的成果。我们认为尽管横波分裂分析方法被广泛应用于地壳介质各向异性研究,但是它也存在一些固有的局限性,期望未来能发展一种更为可靠、有效的方法以及数据处理流程来准确拾取横波分裂参数。     

基于横波分裂的青藏高原多圈层各向异性研究进展

有关青藏高原横波分裂的各向异性研究已经开展了近30年,在理论方法和实际应用方面取得了重要进展,并获取了大量的横波分裂测量结果,为认识青藏高原壳幔各向异性变形特征和动力学机制提供了重要的依据.本文首先介绍了地震各向异性的来源与应用,随后回顾了横波分裂分析方法的发展,简述了各种横波分裂方法的原理,最后通过总结近30年来青藏高原上地壳、整个地壳和上地幔横波分裂各向异性研究成果,系统分析了青藏高原壳幔各向异性变形特征.基于各横波分裂结果的对比分析来看,XKS波分裂测量结果最为稳定,近震直达S波分裂测量结果次之,而Pms波分裂测量结果相对离散,往往相同区域内不同的研究结果差异较大,主要原因可能是相比XKS波和近震直达S波,Pms波的信噪比较低,次要原因可能是各研究在方法和处理分析等方面的差异.     

地震波衰减的物理机制研究

对近年来有关地震波衰减的物理机制进行评述和初步研究认为,对于地壳介质,造成地震波衰减的主要原因是地壳内存在大量裂隙,裂纹中饱含水或部分含水,地震波传播时引起裂隙中的流体运动,从而造成地震波的衰减,对于上地幔,扩散控制的位错阻尼机制可能是造成地幔地震波衰减的一个重要原因,而上地幔软流层部分熔融的存在也是造成地震波衰减不可忽视的原因．     

起伏地表组合震源地震波场定向方法

多个震源组合激发通过改变激发延时,可以得到沿某方向传播的地震波场,即定向地震波场激发技术,它可用于特定目标体的照明与探测之中.本文以水平地表的组合震源定向激发原理为基础,推导了倾斜地表情况下的组合震源定向激发公式,并计算绘制了其理论方向图.另外本文将组合震源波场定向方法推广至任意起伏地表,根据惠更斯菲涅尔原理,提出了旋转坐标方法,即将水平坐标旋转至定向波场传播方向法向的倾斜坐标,可方便地计算震源传播至定向波场波前面的走时,作为组合震源的激发延时.根据本文提出的方法,我们分别计算了倾斜地表条件与复杂地表条件定向地震波场的组合震源延时参数,通过波动方程数值模拟技术得到的波场快照验证了本文方法的有效性.     

凹陷地形对Rayleigh面波传播影响的研究

利用局域离散波数法,研究了地形对近地表爆炸源产生的Rayleigh面波的影响,展示了Rayleigh面波穿越地形过程中波的传播进程,研究了穿越地形前后Rayleigh面波能量、频率的变化,并讨论了该变化与地形起伏程度的关系,从中可见,Rayleigh面波穿越地形时,激发出新的体波和面波,并且越陡的地形对面波传播的阻碍性越强,且面波高频部分能量损失的越多.     

地震波面波空间相干性规律研究

In this paper, seismic records of Taiwan LSST array and SMART-1 array were selected to calculate the S-wave and surface wave coherence coefficients at different station distances. And then the coherence function model proposed by Loh was used to fit the calculation results. After comparison and analysis, we found that when the distance d < 50 m, the coherency coefficients of surface wave and S-waves are basically the same; when the distance d = 50 m , the coherency coefficients of surface wave is smaller than that of S-wave, and as the distance increases, the differences gradually increase. When the distance d > 500 m, the spatial coherency of the surface wave hardly exists, so no further consideration is needed. Finally, the surface wave coherency model parameters were given in this paper, which can be used as a reference for the synthetic ground motion field in the seismic analysis for long and large structures in large basins.     

Discussion on the Measurement Method for the Coda Wave Quality Factor

The Quality factor is the parameter that can be used to describe the energy attenuation on seismic wave. In theory, we can obtain the relationship between the change of the coda wave quality factor with time and the strong earthquake preparation process on the basis of the quality factor of a coda wave in a same ray path. However, in reality the coda wave quality factor measured by different seismic coda waves corresponds to different seismic wave ray paths. The change of the quality factor with time is related to non-elastic characteristics of the medium and the volume of scattering ellipsoid constrained by scattered wave phase fronts, besides the change of regional stress field. This paper discusses the relationship between quality factor, epicenter distance and different lapse time, and then discusses the relationship between quality factor and frequency. Furthermore the determination method of the coda wave quality factor is put forward. The improved determination method of the quality factor, which removes the influence of different earthquakes or propagation depth of scattered waves, may increase measurement precision, thus information pertaining to abnormal changes in quality factor and the relationship between the quality factor and earthquake preparation process can be acquired.     

S波包络时间差影响因素的数值分析di

介质非均匀性可引起高频S波包络的展宽．S波包络展宽是定量研究岩石圈中随机速度非均匀性的有力工具．S波的初至与其均方根包络最大振幅的一半之间的时间延迟定义为S波包络时间差,该时间的大小可反映介质非均匀性强弱．采用有限差分算法模拟了2D von Kaacute;rmaacute;n型随机介质中S波包络的展宽现象,统计分析了影响S波包络时间差的主要因素．结果表明,随机介质中S波传播的距离、随机介质速度扰动率及S波频率均可对S波包络时间差产生影响．相比较而言,速度扰动率对S波包络时间差影响程度最大,S波传播距离次之,S波频率影响程度最小．      

An assessment of the impact of surface currents on wave modeling in the Southern Ocean

This paper presents an assessment of the impact of the ocean circulation on modeled wave fields in the Southern Ocean, where a systematic positive bias of the modeled wave height against altimetry data has been reported. The inclusion of ocean currents in the wave model considerably reduces the positive bias of the simulated wave height for high southern latitudes. The decrease of wave energy in the presence of currents is almost exclusively related to the reduction of the relative wind, caused by an overall co-flowing current field associated with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Improvements of the model results are also found for the peak period and the mean period against a long-term moored buoy. At the mooring location, the effect of currents is greater for larger and longer waves, suggesting remotely generated swells are more influenced by the currents than local waves. However, an additional qualitative analysis using high-resolution currents in a finer grid nested to the global coarser grid shows that typical resolution of global hydrodynamic reanalysis is not sufficient to resolve mesoscale eddies, and as a consequence, the simulation of mesoscale wave patterns can be compromised. The results are also discussed in terms of the accuracy of forcing fields.