Structure,hydrothermal alteration and composition of the Rubiales Pb-Zn orebody (Lugo,Spain): Genetic model

The Rubiales Pb-Zn ore deposit, northwestern Spain, is situated in the Westasturian-Leonese zone, according to the division of the Hercynian Chain in the Iberian Peninsula (Julivert et al. 1972). The orebody is placed in a subvertical shear zone developed at the eastern limb of the Baralla syncline, within the middle and upper members of the lower Cambrian Transition Series. The deposit is a vertical lenticular mass with a N30°W direction. Its length is about 1200 m in a N-S direction by 600 m wide and has an average thickness of 30 m.Its mineralogy is simple: 99% of the sulphides consist of sphalerite and galena with a ratio of 7 to 1. The remaining 1% is mainly formed by pyrite and chalcopyrite with pyrrhotite traces. The deposit shows a large aureole of hydrothermal alteration which is the result of three consecutive processes: (1) sericitization of slates and ankeritization of limestones; (2) silicification of ankeritic rocks; and (3) chloritization of the lower part of the deposit.Since the deposit was discovered in 1967 there has been controversy concerning its origin. Two hypotheses have been considered so far: (1) a sedex model formation (Gilissen 1977; Vazquez 1987); and (2) a hydrothermal origin in a shear zone during the Hercynian Orogeny (Merayo et al. 1984; Arias 1988). The data herein presented support the second hypothesis.     

Organic petrology and geochemistry of the Carboniferous coal seams from the Central Asturian Coal Basin (NW Spain)

This paper presents for the first time a petrological and geochemical study of coals from the Central Asturian Coal Basin (North Spain) of Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian), mainly of Moscovian, age. A paleoenvironmental approach was used, taking into account both petrographic and organic geochemical studies. Vitrinite reflectance (R_r) ranges from 0.5% to 2.5%, which indicates a high volatile bituminous to semianthracite and anthracite coal rank. The coal samples selected for paleoenvironmental reconstruction are located inside the oil–gas-prone phase, corresponding to the interval between the onset of oil generation and first gas generation and efficient expulsion of oil. This phase is represented by coals that have retained their hydrocarbon potential and also preserved biomarker information. Paleodepositional reconstruction based on maceral and petrographic indices points to a swamp environment with vitrinite-rich coal facies and variable mineral matter content. The gelification index (GI) and groundwater influence index (GWI) indicate strong gelification and wet conditions. The biomarkers exhibit a high pristane/phytane ratio, suggesting an increase in this ratio from diagenetic processes, and a high diterpanes ratio. This, in turn, would seem to indicate a high swamp water table and a humid climate. The maximum point of coal accumulation occurred during the regressive part of the Late Moscovian sequence and in the most humid climate described for this period of time in the well-known coal basins of Europe and North America.     

Fluid inclusion,siliceous rock geochemistry of Shewushan lateritic gold deposit,Hubei Province,eastern China: Implication for the genesis of primary orebody

The Shewushan gold deposit is located 16 km southwest of Jiayu County, Hubei Province, eastern China, which is the largest lateritic gold deposit in Asia, consisting of a series of mineralized faults containing gold grades of 1.0–19.5 g/t set within a larger, lower-grade(0.2–1.0 g/t) zone. According to the fluid inclusions study, the homogenization temperature ranges from 70–350℃, and concentrates between 140–220℃. The laser Rama results show that the CO2 and CH4 exist in mineralized fluid. In addition, the major and trace element and REE geochemical data show that the genesis of the siliceous rocks is hydrothermal genesis, formed by mineralized fluid bearing SiO2 transmitted along faults to the surface, and replace the carbonate rocks to begin deposition. Primary gold mineralization is attributed to hydrothermal activity that followed the main period of tectonic deformation of the Indosinian orogeny, which caused the regional detachment regime in southeast Hubei. The reversed fold and the fault system formed the fluid migration channel in the Shewushan area. EPMA results show that Au exists in arsenopyrite(850×10-6–1550×10-6 Au) and pyrite(470×10-6–1340×10-6 Au). Therefore, based on the above results and combined with the field observation, we suggest that the genesis of primary orebody in Shewushan deposit is carlin type, while not weathered residual type.     

The Aguablanca Cu–Ni ore deposit (Extremadura, Spain), a case of synorogenic orthomagmatic mineralization: age and isotope composition of magmas (Sr, Nd) and ore (S)

The Aguablanca Cu–Ni orthomagmatic ore deposit is hosted by mafic and ultramafic rocks of the Aguablanca stock, which is part of the larger, high-K calc-alkaline Santa Olalla plutonic complex. This intrusive complex, ca. 338 Ma in age, is located in the Ossa-Morena Zone (OMZ) of the Iberian Variscan Belt. Mineralization consists mainly of pyrrhotite, pentlandite and chalcopyrite resulting from the crystallization of an immiscible sulphide-rich liquid. Isotope work on the host igneous rocks (Sr, Nd) and the ore (S) suggests that contamination with an upper-crustal component took place at some depth before final emplacement of the plutons (Nd₃₃₈=−6 to −7.5; Sr₍₃₃₈₎=0.7082 to 0.7100; δ³⁴S_(sulphides) near +7.4‰). Assimilation–fractional crystallization (AFC) processes are invoked to explain early cumulates and immiscible sulphide-magma formation. Intrusion took place at the beginning of the type-A oblique subduction of the South Portuguese Zone under the Ossa-Morena Zone and was probably driven by transpressive structures (strike-slip faults). The mineralization is thus synorogenic.Aguablanca is probably the first case referred to in the literature of a magmatic Cu–Ni ore deposit hosted by calc-alkaline igneous rocks.     

Potential field constraints on the deep structure of the Lugo gneiss dome (NW Spain)

The Lugo gneiss dome, in the NW Iberian Massif (Spain) is a Variscan structure developed during late stages of orogenic collapse. Crustal extension was mainly accomplished by two kilometre-scale conjugate extensional shear zones and by the late development of the dome and a huge normal fault. These structures overprint previous contractional recumbent folds and a thrust fault. The Lugo dome and its southward continuation, the Sanabria dome, are the site of the conspicuous Eastern Galicia Magnetic Anomaly (EGMA), a N–S band, 50 km wide and 190 km long, with a maximum amplitude of 190 nT. Integrated potential field modelling of the EGMA and its corresponding gravity signature have been carried out aided by constraints provided by the measurement of c. 900 magnetic susceptibilities and by previous geophysical data, mainly seismic refraction and reflection profiles. Results suggest that a large volume of low-density migmatites and associated inhomogeneous granites are the main source of the magnetic anomaly. Small massifs of basic and ultrabasic rocks inside the migmatites and high-susceptibility iron ore bodies sparsely distributed in low-grade Middle Ordovician slates are also thought to contribute to the anomaly but to a minor extent. Although otherwise similar to other gneiss domes, the Lugo dome is accompanied by a striking magnetic anomaly whose origin is discussed in terms of the tectonic evolution of this structure and the provenance of the magnetite-bearing migmatites and inhomogeneous granites that core it.     

土壤地球化学测量在高栅子银多金属矿预查区的应用效果

高栅子银多金属矿预查区地处兴安-太行南段成矿带中的军都山岩浆岩成矿带上。经过2013年1∶1万土壤地球化学测量、野外地质简测和电法综合剖面测量等找矿工作,发现该区存在Au-Ag-As-Mo元素组合异常;经过钻孔验证,为银铅锌金多金属矿。初步估算,银远景资源量达到中型规模,有进一步开展找矿工作的必要。     

Tectono-thermal evolution in a region with thin-skinned tectonics: the western nappes in the Cantabrian Zone (Variscan belt of NW Spain)

 The palaeotemperature distribution in the transition from diagenesis to metamorphism in the western nappes of the Cantabrian Zone (Somiedo, La Sobia and Aramo Units) are analysed by conodont colour alteration index (CAI) and illite crystallinity (IC). Structural and stratigraphic control in distribution of CAI and IC values is observed. Both CAI and IC value distributions show that anchizonal conditions are reached in the lower part of the Somiedo Unit. A disruption of the thermal trend by basal thrusts is evidenced by CAI and IC values. There is an apparent discrepancy between the IC and CAI values in Carboniferous rocks of the Aramo Unit; the IC has mainly anchizonal values, whereas the CAI has diagenetic values. Discrepant IC values are explained as a feature inherited from the source area. In the Carboniferous rocks of the La Sobia Unit, both IC and CAI indicate diagenetic conditions. The anchimetamorphism predated completion of emplacement of the major nappes; it probably developed previously and/or during the early stages of motion of the units. Temperature probably decreased when the metamorphosed zones of the sheets rose along ramps and were intensely eroded. In the context of the Iberian Variscan belt, influence of tectonic factors on the metamorphism is greater in the internal parts, where the strain and cleavage are always present, than in the external parts (Cantabrian Zone), where brittle deformation and rock translation are dominant, with an increasing role of the burial on the metamorphism. Received: 11 May 1998 / Accepted: 19 January 1999     

The Zn-Pb deposits of Casario (Ligurian Alps,NW Italy): Late Palaeozoic sedimentary-exhalative bodies affected by the alpine metamorphism

In the Ligurian Alps (South-Western Italian Alps), Zn-Pb deposits occur within late Palaeozoic meta-sedimentary units belonging to the Briançonnais Zone near Casario (Tanaro valley). Different types of sulphide-rich, lens-shaped mineralizations are recognized: sphalerite-galena massive sulphide bodies, pyrite-rich lenses and sulphide-rich quartz–carbonate-chloritoid granofels. Sulphide lenses and host rocks are affected by at least three ductile deformation phases and by a polyphase alpine metamorphism, whose climax conditions are estimated, based on P-T pseudosection calculations, at T = 300-325 °C and P = 0.55-0.60 GPa. In all the mineralized lenses the ore minerals are represented, in variable amount, by Fe-poor sphalerite, galena, pyrite and arsenopyrite (± tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite); the gangue consists of quartz, carbonate (sideritemagnesite ± rhodochrosite s.s.), Fe-chloritoid, muscovite-phengite and chlorite. The mineralizations are associated with chloritoid – carbonate micaschists displaying a finely bedded texture, with sharp between-bed compositional contrast, which suggests their exhalative origin.

In spite of the tectono-metamorphic overprint, some pre-metamorphic features of the hydrothermal system are still recognized, like relics of the hydrothermal feeding system, primary growth textures and sulphide-rich microbreccias. These massive sulphide lenses, which share many characters with the SEDEX deposits, testify to the occurrence of an exhalative event of Upper Carboniferous age previously unrecognized in the Ligurian Briançonnais Unit.     

Transposed high-pressure granulite fabrics (Cabo Ortegal, NW Spain): Implications on the scales of deformation localization

High-pressure granulite facies rocks of the Bacariza Formation (Cabo Ortegal, NW Spain) were syn-metamorphically deformed at the contacts with the bounding units (peridotite and eclogite massifs). This enabled the formation of meter-thick, spectacular shear zones with reworked and transposed foliations and lineations. The texturally stable mineral assemblage of the new fabrics records an intense, ductile deformation of the mineral aggregate at temperatures of 700–800 °C associated with amalgamation of eclogite, high-pressure granulitic rocks and ultramafic sheets in deep portions of a subduction channel. The lattice preferred orientation of the main constituent minerals (garnet, augite, amphibole, plagioclase, quartz and biotite) discloses the active deformation mechanisms at the scale of the mineral grains and the relationships with the deformation at larger scales. Overprinting relationships of the metamorphic assemblages demonstrates that partitioning and deformation localization occurred at different scales under similar high-grade conditions. Complete macroscopic transposition in the shear zones was complementary to meso and microscopic partitioning of deformation intensity and mechanisms between different lithological layers and mineral species.     

Historical analysis of heavy metal pollution in three estuaries on the north coast of Galicia (NW Spain)

This research focuses on the development of metal pollution in sediment cores from three estuaries in Northwest Spain: Viveiro, Ortigueira and Barqueiro. Pb, Cu, Co, Cr, Cd and Zn and total organic carbon were assessed using principal component analysis (PCA) in order to obtain background values, measure pollution levels and identify pollution sources. Results were interpreted by considering the local industrial history, grain size and C/N relationship. The pollution levels obtained bear a strong resemblance to those documented for of a moderately industrialised area. PCA identifies factors that reflect mainly temporal associations with metals. Sedimentation rates between 0.9 and 1.1 cm/year were determined. In Viveiro core levels of Cr pollution are associated with tanneries. In Ortigueira, high core levels of Cu and Co are linked to mining, and Cr levels to adjacent ultramafic rocks. Erosion of Holocene sediment causes high values of Co and Cr in the Barqueiro core. Cu increase in the three estuaries is related to fungicide use since 1910. Sea level rise appears to be affecting the marine characteristics of the sediments in Barqueiro. In Viveiro, the nature of the sediment reflects engineering work and land reclamation.     

基于实码加速遗传算法的投影寻踪模型在圈定水系沉积物地球化学异常中的应用——以湖南某铅锌矿床为例

单纯利用成矿元素圈定异常,可能会出现异常与已知矿床不对应的现象.矿化过程伴随着某些微量元素的富集,同时也伴随着一些元素的贫化,将成矿元素与富集及贫化微量元素相结合,可以大大提高地球化学找矿的效果.利用基于实码加速遗传算法的投影寻踪模型将高维数据投影到一维子空间进行分析,既可以得到投影值的大小又可以获得每个元素的权重,在不损失重要信息的同时又可以剔除噪声数据,具有较好的稳健性.通过某铅锌矿床实例研究,发现单纯应用成矿元素圈定异常,会出现某些异常区没有矿床,或者某些矿床并无对应异常的情况,而利用投影值圈定的异常范围与已知矿床吻合得更好,说明投影寻踪方法的分析结果更加突出了一些与成矿有利部位的异常,减少了异常查证面积而没有丢失异常信息.因此,将多元素信息结合,利用基于实码加速遗传算法的投影寻踪模型能够有效处理高维数据并获取重要的信息,能够比较准确地圈定异常区域.     

The structural evolution of the Asinara Island (NW Sardinia,Italy)

The metamorphic basement of the Asinara island represents a key area of the Sardinia Variscan segment, because it displays an almost complete cross-section through the inner part of the Sardinia Variscan belt, where different tectono-metamorphic complexes have been juxtaposed along narrow belts of high-strain concentration. Detailed field mapping coupled with preliminary studies on the structural and metamorphic features of this small island, allow to draw a better picture of the structural frame issued from the Variscan collision in the inner zone of the belt. Three deformation phases related to crustal thickening in a compressive and transpressive, partitioned tectonic regime, followed by a later phase of extensional deformation have been recognised. In spite of a general HT/LP metamorphic overprint, linked to the post-collisional deformation phases, a relic Barrovian zoneography is still detectable. The Barrovian assemblages are preto syn-kinematic with respect to the D2 deformation phase, and pre-date the third, contractional tectonic event.

The HT/LP assemblage indicates a static growth of weakly deformed by the last deformation events. The complex geometry of the fabric associated to the D2 and D3 deformation events suggests an heterogenous deformation history with a monoclinic geometry characterized by switching of the stretching lineation orientation and a contrasting sense of displacement, probably controlled by a northward partitioned pure shear.     

A new titanosaur (Dinosauria,Sauropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of Lo Hueco (Cuenca,Spain)

The upper Campanian-lower Maastrichtian site of Lo Hueco (Cuenca, Spain) has provided a set of well-preserved partial skeletons in anatomical connection or with a low dispersion of their skeletal elements. One partial skeleton is herein described and a new titanosaurian sauropod is established, Lohuecotitan pandafilandi. This titanosaur is diagnosed by eight autapomorphic features: dorsally and ventrally widened or bifurcated posterior centrodiapophyseal lamina in anterior and middle dorsal vertebrae; short postspinal lamina with a transversely expanded distal end represented by smooth scars in the dorsal vertebrae; anteriormost caudals with the medial spinoprezygapophyseal and medial spinopostzygapophyseal laminae ventrally connected with the prespinal and postspinal laminae, respectively; anterior caudal neural spines with a dorsal projection of the prespinal and postspinal laminae; anterior caudal neural spines bears a “greek-cross”-like cross-section; middle caudal centra having two round and rough structures in the dorsal edge of the posterior articulation, which extends to the dorsal surface of the centrum; the articular ends of the rami of the haemal arches are divided in two articular surfaces; and tuberosity between the anterior and the lateral trochanter of the fibula. The herein performed phylogenetic analysis considered L. pandafilandi as a member of Lithostrotia more derived than Malawisaurus. The known palaeodiversity of the Late Cretaceous Ibero-Armorican titanosaurs is increasing, and further analyses focused on this group will be necessary to better understand the evolutionary history of European titanosaurs and to clarify their relationships within Titanosauria.     

甘肃黑山铜镍硫化物含矿岩体的地质特征及橄榄石成因探讨

黑山铜镍硫化物含矿岩体位于中亚造山带南缘北山褶皱带东部,对该岩体的研究有助于正确理解造山带型铜镍硫化物的成矿作用。详细的野外基础地质特征表明黑山矿区仅出露单一的新元古代青白口系地层,无寒武纪地层出露。黑山含矿岩体由早期的方辉橄榄岩、二辉橄榄岩和橄榄辉长苏长岩,以及稍晚期的辉长岩脉组成。黑山岩体位于黑山背斜南翼,其初始产状应为一水平或近水平的岩床状岩体,因后期褶皱作用,岩体发生了倾斜形成现今的产状。黑山岩体中橄榄石Fo值为80.5~87.0,其Ni含量为1070×10^-6~3461×10^-6。借助"MELTS"软件,我们进一步厘定了黑山母岩浆为高镁玄武岩浆 (12.81% MgO, 10.84% FeO, 430×10^-6 Ni)。研究表明,黑山橄榄石的主要控制因素为:1)母岩浆的成分;2)后续新鲜岩浆的补充混合作用;3)硫化物熔离作用;4)晶间硅酸盐熔浆作用;5)橄榄石与硫化物之间发生的Fe-Ni交换。模拟计算表明,硫化物熔离与橄榄石结晶几乎同时发生,橄榄石与硫化物的最小质量比约为20:1。1号矿体及矿化体的橄榄石比4号矿体更富Mg和Ni,并且还呈现非常好的负相关关系,表明这些橄榄石与硫化物发生了不同程度的Fe-Ni交换,而与其发生Fe-Ni交换的硫化物更富Ni以及共生的岩浆更为原始。这很可能是因为黑山岩体形成于开放的岩浆通道系统,早期融离的硫化物与后续的新鲜的硫不饱和岩浆发生反应,使得该类硫化物含量减少但硫化物中的金属元素含量增高从而形成1号矿体及矿化体。     

Evolution of a kyanite-bearing belt within a HT-LP orogen: the case of NW Variscan Iberia

Kyanite replaces andalusite in a belt of Ordovician and Silurian pelitic rocks that form a narrow synform pinched between high-grade antiforms in NW Variscan Iberia. Kyanite occurs across the belt in Al-rich, black pelites in assemblages I: kyanite–chloritoid–chlorite–muscovite and II: kyanite–staurolite– chlorite–muscovite. In I, kyanite occurs in the matrix and in kyanite–muscovite aggregates that pseudomorph earlier andalusite porphyroblasts. The aggregates are found across the belt and can still be recognized in assemblage II and even in III: andalusite–staurolite–biotite–muscovite, this latter being a hornfelsic Silurian schist where kyanite is relic and staurolite occurs in the matrix, and is resorbed inside new massive pleochroic andalusite. KFMASH and MnKFMASH pseudosections have been constructed using Thermocalc for Al-rich and Al-poorer compositions from the belt. Chloritoid zoning in Al-rich rocks containing assemblage I, plus chloritoid–chlorite thermometry complemented with garnet–chlorite thermometry in Al-poorer lithologies, mean that the path is one of increasing pressure and temperature. Conditions prior to assemblage I, with earlier andalusite stable, are those of the andalusite–chloritoid– chlorite field as testified by chloritoid enclosed in andalusite porphyroblast rims. The passage from assemblage I to II implies a prograde path within the kyanite field. Assemblage III represents peak conditions, indicating a prograde staurolite-consuming reaction across a KFMASH field, leading eventually to a locally found andalusite–biotite–muscovite hornfels. The lowest pressure stages are recorded by cordierite–biotite in Al-poor pelites. Garnet-bearing MnKFMASH assemblages in Al-poorer pelites record conditions similar to assemblages II and III. The replacement of andalusite by kyanite in assemblage I is attributed to downdragging of andalusite-bearing rocks into a synform as testified by the strained andalusite porphyroblasts affected by a subvertical crenulation cleavage. Prograde metamorphism in the eastern contact of the belt is due to heat transferred to the belt from the ascending high grade antiform across the Vivero fault.     

Strain partitioning and preservation of Ar/Ar ages during Variscan exhumation of a subducted crust (Malpica–Tui complex, NW Spain)

The Malpica–Tui complex (NW Iberian Massif) consists of a Lower Continental Unit of variably deformed and recrystallized granitoids, metasediments and sparse metabasites, overridden by an upper unit with rocks of oceanic affinities. Metamorphic minerals dated by the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar method record a coherent temporal history of progressive deformation during Variscan metamorphism and exhumation. The earliest stages of deformation (D1) under high-pressure conditions are recorded in phengitic white micas from eclogite-facies rocks at 365–370 Ma. Following this eclogite-facies peak-metamorphism, the continental slab became attached to the overriding plate at deep-crustal levels at ca. 340–350 Ma (D2). Exhumation was accompanied by pervasive deformation (D3) within the continental slab at ca. 330 Ma and major deformation (D4) in the underlying para-autochthon at 315–325 Ma. Final tectonothermal evolution included late folding, localized shearing and granitic intrusions at 280–310 Ma.

Dating of high-pressure rocks by the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar method yields ages that are synchronous with published Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd ages obtained for both the Malpica–Tui complex and its correlative, the Champtoceaux complex in the French Armorican Massif. The results indicate that phengitic white mica retains its radiogenic argon despite been subjected to relatively high temperatures (500–600 °C) for a period of 20–30 My corresponding to the time-span from the static, eclogite-facies M1 peak-metamorphism through D1-M2 eclogite-facies deformation to amphibolite-facies D2-M3. Our study provides additional evidence that under certain geological conditions (i.e., strain partitioning, fluid deficiency) argon isotope mobility is limited at high temperatures, and that ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronology can be a reliable method for dating high pressure metamorphism.     

Origin of the Rubian carbonate-hosted magnesite deposit, Galicia, NW Spain: mineralogical, REE, fluid inclusion and isotope evidence

The Rubian magnesite deposit (West Asturian—Leonese Zone, Iberian Variscan belt) is hosted by a 100-m-thick folded and metamorphosed Lower Cambrian carbonate/siliciclastic metasedimentary sequence—the Cándana Limestone Formation. It comprises upper (20-m thickness) and lower (17-m thickness) lens-shaped ore bodies separated by 55 m of slates and micaceous schists. The main (lower) magnesite ore body comprises a package of magnesite beds with dolomite-rich intercalations, sandwiched between slates and micaceous schists. In the upper ore body, the magnesite beds are thinner (centimetre scale mainly) and occur between slate beds. Mafic dolerite dykes intrude the mineralisation. The mineralisation passes eastwards into sequence of bedded dolostone (Buxan) and laminated to banded calcitic marble (Mao). These show significant Variscan extensional shearing or fold-related deformation, whereas neither Rubian dolomite nor magnesite show evidence of tectonic disturbance. This suggests that the dolomitisation and magnesite formation postdate the main Variscan deformation. In addition, the morphology of magnesite crystals and primary fluid inclusions indicate that magnesite is a neoformed hydrothermal mineral. Magnesite contains irregularly distributed dolomite inclusions (<50 μm) and these are interpreted as relics of a metasomatically replaced dolostone precursor. The total rare earth element (REE) contents of magnesite are very similar to those of Buxan dolostone but are depleted in light rare earth elements (LREE); heavy rare earth element concentrations are comparable. However, magnesite REE chondrite normalised profiles lack any characteristic anomaly indicative of marine environment. Compared with Mao calcite, magnesite is distinct in terms of both REE concentrations and patterns. Fluid inclusion studies show that the mineralising fluids were MgCl₂–NaCl–CaCl₂–H₂O aqueous brines exhibiting highly variable salinities (3.3 to 29.5 wt.% salts). This may be the result of a combination of fluid mixing, migration of pulses of variable-salinity brines and/or local dissolution and replacement processes of the host dolostone. Fluid inclusion data and comparison with other N Iberian dolostone-hosted metasomatic deposits suggest that Rubian magnesite probably formed at temperatures between 160 and 200°C. This corresponds, at hydrostatic pressure (500 bar), to a depth of formation of ~~5 km. Mineralisation-related Rubian dolomite yields δ ¹⁸O values (δ ¹⁸O: 12.0–15.4‰, mean: 14.4±1.1‰) depleted by around 5‰ compared with barren Buxan dolomite (δ ¹⁸O: 17.1–20.2‰, mean: 19.4±1.0‰). This was interpreted to reflect an influx of ¹⁸O-depleted waters accompanied by a temperature increase in a fluid-dominated system. Overlapping calculated δ ¹⁸O_fluid values (~+5‰ at 200°C) for fluids in equilibrium with Rubian dolomite and magnesite show that they were formed by the same hydrothermal system at different temperatures. In terms of δ ¹³C values, Rubian dolomite (δ ¹³C: −1.4 to 1.9‰, mean: 0.4±1.3‰) and magnesite (δ ¹³C: −2.3 to 2.4‰, mean: 0.60±1.0‰) generally exhibit more negative δ ¹³C values compared with Buxan dolomite (δ ¹³C: −0.2 to 1.9‰, mean: 0.8±0.6‰) and Mao calcite (δ ¹³C: −0.3 to 1.5‰, mean: 0.6±0.6‰), indicating progressive modification to lower δ ¹³C values through interaction with hydrothermal fluids. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios, calculated at 290 Ma, vary from 0.70849 to 0.70976 for the Mao calcite and from 0.70538 to 0.70880 for the Buxan dolostone. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios in Rubian magnesite are more radiogenic and range from 0.71123 to 0.71494. The combined δ ¹⁸O–δ ¹³C and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr data indicate that the magnesite-related fluids were modified basinal brines that have reacted and equilibrated with intercalated siliciclastic rocks. Magnesite formation is genetically linked to regional hydrothermal dolomitisation associated with lithospheric delamination, late-Variscan high heat flow and extensional tectonics in the NW Iberian Belt. A comparison with genetic models for the Puebla de Lillo talc deposits suggests that the formation of hydrothermal replacive magnesite at Rubian resulted from a metasomatic column with magnesite forming at higher fluid/rock ratios than dolomite. In this study, magnesite generation took place via the local reaction of hydrothermal dolostone with the same hydrothermal fluids in very high permeability zones at high fluid/rock ratios (e.g. faults). It was also possibly aided by additional heat from intrusive dykes or sub-cropping igneous bodies. This would locally raise isotherms enabling a transition from the dolomite stability field to that of magnesite.Editorial handling: F. Tornos     

Diapiric emplacement in the upper crust of a granitic body: the La Bazana granite (SW Spain)

The ascent and emplacement of granites in the upper crust is a major geological phenomenon accomplished by a number of different processes. The active processes determine the final geometry of the bodies and, in some favourable cases, the inverse problem of deducing mechanisms can be undertaken by relying on the geometry of plutons. This is the case of the La Bazana granitic pluton, a small Variscan igneous body that intruded Cambrian rocks of the Ossa-Morena Zone (SW Iberian Massif) in the core of a large late upright antiform. The granite shows no appreciable solid-state deformation, but has a late magmatic foliation whose orientation, derived from field observations, defines a gentle dome. The regional attitude of the main foliation in the country rock (parallel to the axial plane of recumbent folds) is NW–SE, but just around the granite, it accommodates to the dome shape of the pluton. Flattening in the host rock on top of the granite is indicated by boudinaged and folded veins, and appears to be caused by an upward pushing of the magma during its emplacement. The dome-shaped foliation of the granite, geometrically and kinematically congruent with the flattening in the host rock, can be related in the same way to the upward pushing of the magma. The level of final emplacement was deduced from the mineral associations in the thermal aureole to be of 7–10 km in depth. Models of the gravity anomaly related to the granite body show that the granite has a teardrop–pipe shape enlarged at its top. Diapiric ascent of the magma through the lower middle crust is inferred until reaching a high viscous level, where final emplacement accompanied by lateral expansion and vertical flattening took place. This natural example suggests that diapirism may be a viable mechanism for migration and emplacement of magmas, at least up to 7–10 km in depth, and it provides natural evidence for theoretical discussion on the ability of magmatic diapirs to pierce the crust.     

On the relationship between kilometer-scale sheath folds, ductile thrusts and minor structures in the basal high-pressure units of the Cabo Ortegal complex (NW Spain)

Large sheath folds in the basal high-pressure nappes of the Cabo Ortegal complex are described and a kinematic interpretation provided. The principal penetrative and map structures relate to regional D2 deformation, which produced foliations (S2) bearing mineral and stretching lineations (L2) and several types of folds (a-type, sheath-like and ‘folded folds’). The latter structures are subparallel to the trend of the orogen. Their attitude suggests that the units involved shared a common tectonic evolution during progressive ductile deformation of an anisotropic medium. Reconstruction of major geological structures was accomplished through projection of map-scale features onto the ductile flow plane and the plane perpendicular to the ductile flow direction. The structures reconstructed illustrate their development in the deeper structural levels of an orogenic channel subjected to high-pressure metamorphism during the early phases of the Hercynian orogeny in NW Iberia. We argue that orogen-normal tectonic displacements (of up to a few hundreds of kilometers) represent the minor components of the transpression with possibly thousands of kilometers along-strike dextral displacement between the intervening plates (during subduction/collision).     

Perinates of a new species of Iguanodon (Ornithischia: Ornithopoda) from the lower Barremian of Galve (Teruel,Spain)

Although Iguanodon is one of the most abundant and well-known of Europe's dinosaur genera, fossils of young specimens are very rare. Indeed, the fossil record contains very few examples of the young of any non-hadrosaurid iguanodontian. Here we report the discovery of 13 Iguanodon perinates from the Lower Cretaceous of Galve (Teruel, Spain). The characteristics of an adult and juvenile found nearby show these perinates to belong to a new species: Iguanodon galvensis sp. nov. The histological and osteological features of these young animals indicate them to have been in their first year of life. The taphonomic features of their remains, plus the finding of clearly embryonic vertebrae alongside them, suggest the perinates of this species remained in the vicinity of their nests for some time, possibly congregating in nursery areas.