Centrifuge shaking table tests on 4 × 4 pile groups in liquefiable ground

A series of centrifuge shaking table model tests are conducted on 4?×?4 pile groups in liquefiable ground in this study, achieving horizontal–vertical bidirectional shaking in centrifuge tests on piles for the first time. The dynamic distribution of forces on piles within the pile groups is analysed, showing the internal piles to be subjected to greater bending moment compared with external piles, the mechanism of which is discussed. The roles of superstructure–pile inertial interaction and soil–pile kinematic interaction in the seismic response of the piles within the pile groups are investigated through cross-correlation analysis between pile bending moment, soil displacement, and structure acceleration time histories and by comparing the test results on pile groups with and without superstructures. Soil–pile kinematic interaction is shown to have a dominant effect on the seismic response of pile groups in liquefiable ground. Comparison of the pile response in two tests with and without vertical input ground motion shows that the vertical ground motion does not significantly influence the pile bending moment in liquefiable ground, as the dynamic vertical total stress increment is mainly carried by the excess pore water pressure. The influence of previous liquefaction history during a sequence of seismic events is also analysed, suggesting that liquefaction history could in certain cases lead to an increase in liquefaction susceptibility of sand and also an increase in dynamic forces on the piles.     

桥梁桩基主动托换中顶升荷载的简化计算

以福州地铁1号线盾构隧道下穿洗马桥的桩基主动托换工程为依托,针对桥梁上部结构-桩身-土体三者共同组成的复杂超静定结构,运用数值模拟方法和现场实测数据,分析了在不同顶升荷载作用下复杂超静定结构的内力与位移响应,重点讨论了托换过程中上、下部结构的相对刚度及其对顶升荷载的影响;根据顶升荷载作用点以下桩身轴力接近0的条件,确定了桥墩盖梁与薄壁桥台梁两种典型工况下的桩基顶升荷载分别为1 800 kN和2 600 kN。现场监测结果表明,顶升过程中上部结构的位移值和桩身轴力变化值,均与计算结果吻合较好。在此基础上,提出基于上、下部结构刚度比的顶升荷载简化计算方法,研究结果可为类似复杂超静定结构的桩基主动托换工程提供参考和借鉴。     

Non-linear soil–structure interaction in disconnected piled raft foundations

Disconnected piled raft foundations are characterised by no structural connection between the upper raft and the underlying piles, mostly playing the role of settlement-reducers. The resulting raft–pile gap is usually filled with a granular interlayer, through which the loads from the superstructure are transferred to the piles.In this paper, the complex interaction mechanisms involving the foundational components (raft, piles and soil) are numerically investigated by means of 3D finite elements analyses, accounting for soil non-linearity. The main features of the soil–structure interaction mechanisms under purely vertical external loads are explored over a realistic range of raft–soil gaps for different pile configurations, in which the number of piles – i.e. their spacing – is varied. Special attention is also devoted to the structural response of the piles in terms of axial and bending internal stress resultants. In particular, while disconnection beneficially affects the structural pile response, increasing the raft–pile gap tends to reduce the overall settlement/stiffness efficiencies.The numerical results being presented are in substantial agreement with the outcomes from literature small-scale experiments and suggest a number of relevant theoretical inferences.     

Seismic response of pile foundations in liquefiable soil: parametric study

The performance of pile foundations in liquefiable soil subjected to earthquake loading is a very complex process. The strength and stiffness of the soil decrease due to the increase in pore pressure. The pile can be seriously destroyed by the soil liquefaction during strong earthquakes. This paper presents the response of vertical piles in liquefiable soil under seismic loads. A finite difference model, known as fast Lagrangian analysis of continua, is used to study the pile behavior considering a nonlinear constitutive model for soil liquefaction and pile?Csoil interaction. The maximum lateral displacement and maximum pile bending moment are obtained for different pile diameters, earthquake predominant frequencies, Arias intensities, and peak accelerations. It is found that the maximum lateral displacement and the maximum pile bending moment increase when the predominant earthquake frequency value decreases for a given peak acceleration value.     

Numerical analyses of uplift behavior of pile foundation for transmission line structure in frozen soil regions北大核心CSCD

Pile foundation is one of the most commonly used and suitable foundations to support transmission line structure, especially in seasonally frozen soil regions and permafrost regions. Axial compression is the controlling condition in the design of foundations for such structures as bridges and buildings, while uplift and overturning will control the design of transmission line structure foundations. This paper presents an extensive overview of previous studies including experimental (e. g., laboratory model test and full-scale field load test), analytical/theoretical (e. g., limit equilibrium and limit analysis based on plasticity)and numerical(e. g., finite difference and finite element methods). The review indicates that study on the uplift behavior of pile foundation in frozen soil is relatively limited, particularly in the case of combined effect of axial uplift and lateral loading. Interaction between pile and frozen soil and mechanism of load transfer along the pile shaft and around the pile tip still remain unclear. Therefore, this paper implements finite difference analysis within FLAC3D to investigate the behavior of pile foundation in frozen silty clay and gravelly sand under axial uplift behavior and the effect of ground condition and lateral loading on the uplift behavior. Because of the axisymmetric condition of the problem studied, only half of the model is simulated. The chosen domain of the medium is discretized into a set of quadrilateral elements and the pile is discretized by the cylinder element. The interaction between the soil and pile is considered according to interface elements. Mohr-Coulomb criterion is adopted to model the soil behavior (perfectly elastic-plastic), while the pile is simply considered as a rigid body. The soil parameters such as Young’s modulus, cohesion and internal friction angle used for numerical analyses are determined by laboratory tests and estimated according to the empirical correlations with in-situ tests. The present numerical modeling is verified with the results from field loading tests on pile foundations in Qinghai-Tibet ±550 kV transmission line project. On this basis, parametric studies are carried out to uncover the behavior of pile in frozen soil. It is observed that pullout is the dominant failure mechanism of pile and the uplift load-displacement curve clearly exhibits an asymptote, consisting of initially linear elastic, nonlinear transition, and finally linear regions. These results are consistent with the observations in a few previous studies. In addition, larger uplift capacity of pile foundation in freezing period and gravelly sand is gained (about 20%). Lateral loading increases the deflection and therefore, decreases the uplift capacity of pile foundation. For the convenience of using the results obtained in practice, the values of uplift factor for pile foundation in silty clay and gravelly sand are provided. Finally, it should be noted that the method used, and the results obtained in the current work could be useful for engineers and designers, at least providing them some qualitative evidence for pile design in seasonally frozen soil regions and permafrost regions. This is important and necessary to ensure the safety of construction in such regions. Meanwhile, numerical analyses in the current work can be a benchmark example for subsequent research studies. © 2022 Science Press (China).     

轴力作用下液化土中端承桩的水平振动特性

将地震液化场地土层分为非液化表层土、中部的液化土层和底部的基层,基于饱和多孔介质理论和Novak薄层法,研究轴向压力作用下液化黏弹性土层中端承桩的水平动力特性。利用Helmholtz分解和变量分离法,得到液化土层对桩水平振动的阻抗。利用矩阵传递法,在频率域得到轴力作用下液化土层中端承桩简谐振动的解析解和桩头复刚度的表达式,并进行参数研究,分析轴力、桩-土模量比、桩长径比、液-固耦合系数等对桩头动力刚度和阻尼的影响。结果表明,在轴力作用下,不同长径比、桩-土模量比、液-固耦合系数时的动力刚度绝对值均比无轴力作用时减小,但随频率的变化趋势相同;轴力对桩水平振动的动力阻抗影响显著,随着轴力的增加,桩的水平振动动力刚度因子的绝对值减小,若轴力继续增大,其绝对值趋近于0,桩发生失稳破坏;桩长径比和桩土模量比对桩的水平振动动力阻抗有显著的影响,而液-固耦合系数的影响较小。     

黏土地基中能量桩力学特性数值分析

能量桩是将地源热泵系统中的换热管埋置在桩体内部,桩同时起到承载和换热的作用,是一种新型的基础型式。为了合理分析黏土地基中能量桩的力学特性,需要了解能量桩运行过程中桩和地基土的温度响应,并考虑温度变化对土体力学性能的影响。基于有限元软件ABAQUS建立了能量桩传热分析三维有限元模型,把能量桩的传热简化为换热管内液体与管壁之间的对流传热、桩体中的热传导和地基中的热传导,将计算结果与常规理论和实测数据进行了对比验证。对热力耦合边界面本构模型进行了二次开发,通过算例验证了模型对土体压缩和剪切性状温度效应的模拟能力。利用所提出的能量桩传热分析方法和热边界面模型,考虑不同的桩顶工作荷载水平,对正常固结黏土地基中能量桩单桩的长期性能进行了研究,分析了温度循环对桩顶沉降、桩侧摩阻力和桩身轴力的影响。结果表明,工作荷载越高,温度循环次数越多,桩顶累积沉降越大。     

Seismic behaviour of pile in three-layered soil (case study: Babol City Center Project)

The significance of liquefaction-related damage to pile foundations has been clearly demonstrated by the major earthquakes occurring during past years. The current project investigates the seismic behaviour of a single pile in the three-layered soil of the Babol City centre site (located in Babol City, Mazandaran Province, Iran). The site soil consists of sandy and clayey soils modelled based on the data collected from drilled boreholes. Numerical analysis was performed using Flac2D finite difference program. Three different natural ground motion records are considered, and the influence of each earthquake on the bending moment and lateral displacement of the simulated pile is investigated. In addition, the effect of vertical surcharge on the settlement of the pile during the earthquakes is investigated. Results illustrate that the maximum bending moment has occurred on the interface of liquefiable and non-liquefiable soil layers.     

Influence of seismic motions on behavior of piles in liquefied soils

In the present study an analytical procedure based on finite element technique is proposed to investigate the influence of vertical load on deflection and bending moment of a laterally loaded pile embedded in liquefiable soil, subjected to permanent ground displacement. The degradation of subgrade modulus due to soil liquefaction and effect of nonlinearity are also considered. A free headed vertical concrete elastic nonyielding pile with a floating tip subjected to vertical compressive loading, lateral load, and permanent ground displacement due to earthquake motions, in liquefiable soil underlain by nonliquefiable stratum, is considered. The input seismic motions, having varying range of ground motion parameters, considered here include 1989 Loma Gilroy, 1995 Kobe, 2001 Bhuj, and 2011 Sikkim motions. It is calculated that maximum bending moment occurred at the interface of liquefiable and nonliquefiable soil layers and when thickness of liquefiable soil layer is around 60% of total pile length. Maximum bending moment of 1210 kNm and pile head deflection of 110 cm is observed because of 1995 Kobe motion, while 2001 Bhuj and 2011 Sikkim motions amplify the pile head deflection by 14.2 and 14.4 times and bending moment approximately by 4 times, when compared to nonliquefiable soil. Further, the presence of inertial load at the pile head increases bending moment and deflection by approximately 52% when subjected to 1995 Kobe motion. Thus, it is necessary to have a proper assessment of both kinematic and inertial interactions due to free field seismic motions and vertical loads for evaluating pile response in liquefiable soil.     

Effect of the soil–pile–structure interaction in seismic analysis: case of liquefiable soils

The design of earthquake-resistant structures depends greatly on the soil–foundation–structure interaction. This interaction is more complex in the presence of liquefiable soils. Pile and rigid inclusion systems represent a useful practice to support structures in the presence of liquefiable soils in seismic zones. Both systems increase the bearing capacity of soil and allow reducing the settlements in the structure. Numerical models with a 3-storey reinforced concrete frame founded on inclusions systems (soil–inclusion–platform–structure) and pile systems (soil–pile–structure) were analyzed. Finite difference numerical models were developed using Flac 3D. Two different soil profiles were considered. A simple constitutive model for liquefaction analysis that relates the volumetric strain increment to the cyclic shear strain amplitude was utilized to represent the behavior of the sand, and the linear elastic perfectly plastic constitutive model with a Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion was used to represent the behavior of the earth platform. Two earthquakes were used to study the influence of the different frequency of excitation in the systems. The results were presented in terms of maximum shear forces distribution in the superstructure and spectrum response of each system. The efforts and displacements in the rigid elements (piles or rigid inclusions) were compared for the different systems. The bending and buckling failure modes of the pile were examined. The results show that the pile system, the soil profile and the frequency of excitation have a great influence on the magnitude and location of efforts and displacements in the rigid elements.

     

Buckling of Piles under Liquefied Soil Conditions

The paper pertains to the analysis of piles embedded in liquefiable soils to predict its’ critical buckling load under partial to full loss of lateral support over a portion of the pile length. The analysis is based on extension of Mindlin solution for a point load acting inside a semi infinite elastic half space. Degenerated solutions obtained by using the developed method compares very well with reported results. Parametric studies showed that the depth of liquefiable soil, degradation of soil strength on liquefaction, slenderness ratio, pile stiffness factor and end conditions have significant influence on the buckling behavior of the piles.     

文克尔地基模型下液化土桩基水平振动响应分析

在桩基顶部承受竖向荷载作用的条件下,将完全液化后的上层土体视为流体,将桩基等效为欧拉-伯努利梁模型,探讨了桩底嵌固时桩基顶部的水平振动阻抗。运用流体动力方程模拟顶部液化土层的运动,运用文克尔地基模拟下部非液化分层土的运动。结合传递矩阵法,利用液化土与非液化分层土交界面处的位移、转角和内力连续条件,得到桩基顶部和底部的相关位移?内力表达关系式。根据桩基底部的嵌固条件,求得桩顶阻抗的表达式。与已有文献解进行对比,验证了分析过程的正确性。对阻抗影响条件进行参数分析,表明液化深度、轴力和流体密度大小对桩顶阻抗有不同的影响。     

Skin friction behavior of pile fully embedded in limestone

Pile foundation system in limestone rock layers is commonly used in Riyadh area, Saudi Arabia, for high-rise building, bridges, and other structures. Especially in Riyadh region, bored piles are used for bridges and underpasses not only because of bearing capacity but mainly because of limited spaces for using shallow foundations. In addition, piles are used for bridges over wadis to avoid scouring effects. The loads are transferred by the pile from a superstructure to the rock strata through side friction and end-bearing resistance. However, there are no studies conducted in Riyadh area to quantify the skin friction capacity of pile embedded in limestone rock. Accordingly, this experimental study describes in details the behavior of load transfer mechanism through side friction only on a reinforced concrete pile (75 mm diameter and 150 mm long) constructed on hard limestone rock sample. Soft material (Styrofoam) was placed at the bottom of the pile to eliminate the effect of end-bearing resistance. Unconfined compression test was conducted on intact rock sample to find out the properties of the rock used. The result of the ultimate side friction obtained from the test was compared with values predicted by other researcher methods mentioned in the literature.     

竖向荷载作用下桩筏基础可视化模型试验研究

进行了群桩基础可视化模型试验。在试验过程中对各级竖向荷载作用下群桩基础桩、土的变形采用高清晰数码相机拍摄了照片。通过对照片进行后处理分析,得到了桩、土的位移场,也对桩身轴力也进行了量测,在该基础上研究了群桩基础的变形性状和破坏模式,重点分析对比了桩间距和桩长对桩端土体沉降以及桩身侧摩阻力的影响。试验发现,桩距是影响桩土相对滑移量的主要因素,桩距越大,桩身与土的相对滑移量就越大,桩端刺入量也越大。在柔性筏基下,随桩距增加中桩的桩土相对滑移量可能会大于边桩。桩端刺入量是大桩距桩基础主要的沉降构成,以桩端刺入量为研究对象建立一套大桩距基础新的沉降计算理论,似乎值得进一步研究。桩顶向上刺入（可通过设置褥垫层、桩顶预留净空或设置可压缩垫块来实现）有利于桩间土的压密,减小桩端刺入量,甚至改变破坏模式。     

A simplified analysis method for piled raft and pile group foundations with batter piles

A simplified method of numerical analysis has been developed to estimate the deformation and load distribution of piled raft foundations subjected to vertical, lateral, and moment loads, using a hybrid model in which the flexible raft is modelled as thin plates and the piles as elastic beams and the soil is treated as springs. Both the vertical and lateral resistances of the piles as well as the raft base are incorporated into the model. Pile–soil–pile, pile–soil–raft and raft–soil–raft interactions are taken into account based on Mindlin's solutions for both vertical and lateral forces. The validity of the proposed method is verified through comparisons with several existing methods for single piles, pile groups and piled rafts. Workable design charts are given for the estimation of the lateral displacement and the load distribution of piled rafts from the stiffnesses of the raft alone and the pile group alone. Additionally, parametric studies were carried out concerning batter pile foundations. It was found that the use of batter piles can efficiently improve the deformation characteristics of pile foundations subjected to lateral loads. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

建筑桩基的有效应力地震反应分析：I—计算方法

根据地震作用、上部结构、桩基的特点,建立了建筑桩基地震反应的计算模型,考虑了桩－土－上部结构的动力相互作用。然后奖饱和土体现为由固、液二相组成的两相介质,基于Ｂｉｏｔ动力固结方程,提出一种建筑桩基地震反应的有效应力动力分析方法,并给出了具有计算步骤。     

Correlation of Pile Axial Capacity and CPT Data Using Gene Expression Programming

Numerous methods have been proposed to assess the axial capacity of pile foundations. Most of the methods have limitations and therefore cannot provide consistent and accurate evaluation of pile capacity. However, in many situations, the methods that correlate cone penetration test (CPT) data and pile capacity have shown to provide better results, because the CPT results provide more reliable soil properties. In an attempt to obtain more accurate correlation of CPT data with axial pile capacity, gene expression programming (GEP) technique is used in this study. The GEP is a relatively new artificial intelligent computational technique that has been recently used with success in the field of engineering. Three GEP models have been developed, one for bored piles and two other models for driven piles (a model for each of concrete and steel piles). The data used for developing the GEP models are collected from the literature and comprise a total of 50 bored pile load tests and 58 driven pile load tests (28 concrete pile load tests and 30 steel pile load tests) as well as CPT data. For each GEP model, the data are divided into a training set for model calibration and an independent validation set for model verification. The performances of the GEP models are evaluated by comparing their results with experimental data and the robustness of each model is investigated via sensitivity analyses. The performances of the GEP models are evaluated further by comparing their results with the results of number of currently used CPT-based methods. Statistical analyses are used for the comparison. The results indicate that the GEP models are robust and perform well.     

桩端条件对灌注桩荷载传递特性的影响

以荷载传递法为基础,研究了桩端条件对灌注桩荷载传递特性的影响。采用考虑桩侧软化的三阶段荷载传递函数,并以三折线模型模拟桩端土劣化或沉渣的影响,通过静力平衡条件建立微分控制方程。以桩端沉降和端阻力为边界条件,并将桩侧双曲线段的非线性两阶常微分方程转化为积分方程,并用数值方法求解,可以得到桩身任意截面的沉降、轴力和侧摩阻力。通过参数分析,研究了不同桩端刚度和不同沉渣厚度下灌注桩的荷载-沉降曲线和桩侧摩阻力的分布情况,讨论桩端条件对单桩荷载传递特性的影响。对两组相邻试桩的工程实例进行分析计算,结果表明,该方法能较好地反映实际情况。     

Free vibration of a soil pile system subjected to static axial loading

The lateral free vibration behavior of a typical pile embedded in a uniform soil is presented. The pile was modeled by elements having a continuous distribution of stiffness and mass along its length and the soil resistance was assumed to be of the linear Winkler type. The Wittrick-Williams algorithm was used to solve the non-linear eigenvalue problem of the soil pile system that developed from treating the problem as a system with an infinite number of degrees of freedom. The continuous formulation used in the free vibration problem enabled us to consider the weight of the superstructure acting at the top of the pile to be a lumped mass that influences the mass of the system as is done conventionally. The axial static loading due to the weight of the superstructure, which when included affects the formulation of the dynamic stiffness matrix of the system was also considered. The effects of the weight on the superstructure, pile boundary conditions, and the soil modulus, on the frequency of the lateral free vibration problem were determined from a parametric study undertaken.     

能源桩与周围土体之间荷载传递模型的改进及其桩身承载特性研究

桩-土相互作用问题是岩土工程桩基础问题的关键点与难点,目前针对桩身在循环温度荷载与上覆结构荷载双重作用下的能源桩承载特性研究较少。在传统理想弹塑性模型及双曲线模型的基础上,采用分段非线性的方法对桩-土荷载传递骨干曲线进行了修正,并基于Masing’s循环准则,提出了适用于能源桩的桩-土荷载传递模型。利用改进的桩-土荷载传递模型对能源桩承载特性进行数值分析,着重研究了桩-土荷载传递参数比R对能源桩受力情况的影响。此外,为了探究在上覆结构荷载及循环温度荷载双重作用下,能源桩与周围土体之间的真实荷载传递关系及其结构热力学特性,开展了针对能源桩与周围土体之间相互作用问题的室内模型试验,监测了其桩身轴向应力及侧摩阻力随温度及深度变化的趋势,并与基于改进荷载传递模型的数值计算结果进行了对比。室内模型试验监测及数值计算结果显示：能源桩在上覆结构荷载及温度循环荷载双重作用下,其受力行为受改进的桩-土荷载传递循环曲线控制;基于改进的桩-土荷载传递循环曲线而建立的数值模型计算结果与试验结果基本吻合,改进的桩-土荷载传递模型能够较好发地反映能源桩实际的承载特性。