Effect of infill materials on the performance of geocell reinforced soft clay beds

The present study deals with model plate load tests conducted on geocell reinforced soft clay beds to evaluate the effect of infill materials on the performance of the geocell. Commercially available Neoweb geocells are used in the study. Three different infill materials namely aggregate, sand and local red soil were used in the study. The load carrying capacity of the geocell reinforced bed (as compared to an unreinforced bed) was found to be increased by 13 times for the aggregate infill, 11 times for the sand infill and 10 times for the red soil infill. Similarly the reduction in the settlement was in the order of 78%, 73% and 70% aggregate, sand and the red soil infill materials respectively. Results suggest that the performance of the geocell was not heavily influenced by the infill materials. Further, numerical simulations were carried out using FLAC^2D to validate the experimental findings. The results from numerical studies are in reasonably good agreement with the experimental findings. The outcome of this work is successfully implemented in the construction of the geocell foundation to support a 3 m high embankment in the settled red mud in Lanjighar (Orissa) in India.     

基于弹性地基梁理论的土工格室加筋体变形分析

在土工格室处理软土路基加固机制研究的基础上,针对土工格室加筋体的受力变形特点,将格室体视为置放于Winkler地基上的连续长梁,基于传统的弹性地基梁理论,建立考虑水平摩阻力影响的土工格室加筋体的挠曲变形微分方程,并给出其幂级数解答,从而得到了土工格室加筋体在集中荷载作用下的变形计算方法,为土工格室加固处理后的软土路基沉降计算提供了依据。理论与试验结果对比分析表明,在格室体变形分析中不计水平摩阻力的影响将夸大格室体在荷载作用下的竖向变形,计入水平摩阻力影响后理论与实测曲线吻合更好。     

Deformation analysis of geocell reinforcement using Winkler model

Geocell reinforcement has been increasingly applied to embankment engineerings. Deformation calculation is one of the major concerns during the design process. Using Winkler foundation model and with consideration of the interface resistance effect, a deformation control differential equation for the geocell reinforced mattress under the vertical symmetric loads is presented in this paper. The corresponding power-series semi analytic solutions for the displacements and the internal forces of geocell reinforcement are also presented. Furthermore, the influence factors such as loads, length and flexural rigidity of geocell reinforcement, coefficient of subgrade reaction and the interface resistance on the stress-deformation characteristic of geocell reinforcement are discussed. Finally, two examples are employed to verify the presented method. This study suggests that the effect of the interface resistance on the deformation of geocell reinforcement should be considered in engineering design.     

Deformation of a rock in different tensile tests

Strength and deformation of a typical homogeneous sandstone under tensile stresses, have been studied in the laboratory, using standard tensile tests, viz. uniaxial tension, the Brazilian and beam bending tests. In addition to the parameters such as uniaxial tensile strength, modulus of deformation in tension and Poisson's ratio in tension obtained directly by the uniaxial tension test, the Brazilian tensile strength, the modulus and Poisson's ratio have also been determined by the Brazilian test. Bending tensile strength has been obtained by the beam bending test using the four-point loading system and the tensile modulus of elasticity has been estimated from the observations of beam bending and uniaxial compression tests, using “double elasticity” relationships.The rock under high tensile stresses is found to be much less “stiffer” than under high compressive stresses and is therefore likely to result in a relatively less violent tensile failure. The nature of the tensile deformation in the region of maximum tensile stress is found to be strikingly similar in all the three tensile tests under study. Although the initial, the 50% and the final tensile modulus values differ in each tensile test, the general trend of the tensile modulus with increasing stress is found similar in all these tensile tests.     

Equivalent Continuum Simulations of Geocell Reinforced Sand Beds Supporting Strip Footings

This paper presents an equivalent continuum method for simulating the behaviour of geocell reinforced sand foundation beds, using finite element technique. An equivalent composite model is used for numerically simulating the improvement in the strength and stiffness of sand confined with geocells. Shear strength of geocell encased sand is derived from the additional confining pressure due to geocell using hoop tension theory. The stiffness of geocell encased sand is represented by an empirical equation in terms of the stiffness of the unreinforced sand and the tensile modulus of the geocell material. Numerical simulations of strip footings resting on sand bed are carried out with and without geocell layer, varying parameters like, the dimensions of geocell layer, pocket size, depth of placement of geocell layer and the tensile modulus of the geocell material. The results of numerical analyses are validated with the corresponding experimental results. The comparison between the numerical results and the experimental results is found to be reasonably good. Some significant observations on the mechanism of geocell reinforcement have been presented in this paper.     

受弯条件下薄层灰岩的力学响应行为试验研究

鉴于薄层岩体在实际地下工程中经常发生弯折破坏,利用三点弯曲试验对单层灰岩及含弱面灰岩试样进行抗弯性能测试,探究岩层受弯作用时的变形及破坏特征。试验结果表明,薄层灰岩的抗弯性能与层厚密切相关,单宽峰值弯矩及峰值力对应的岩梁挠度随层厚变化规律基本符合材料力学理论公式计算结果。薄层灰岩弯折破裂模式呈现多样化,既有垂直切穿层理的I型裂纹,也有在弱面处发生转折并沿弱面扩展的断续裂纹,以及与层理斜交的复合型裂纹等。理论分析表明,薄层岩体中的裂纹扩展路径主要受层面拉、剪强度（或断裂韧度）与岩石抗拉强度（或断裂韧度）的相对大小控制。利用双模量理论结合弯曲试验求解岩石拉伸模量需要进行迭代计算,拉压模量相差越大,迭代次数越多,收敛值越偏离初值。试验所得规律有助于深入理解薄层岩体弯曲变形特征及弯折破坏机制,并可作为对薄层岩体受弯作用理论及数值计算的有益补充。     

Load–Deflection response of transversely isotropic piles under lateral loads

In general, pile materials are assumed to be isotropic during the analysis of the load–deflection response of piles under lateral loads. However, commonly used materials such as reinforced concrete and timber as well as potentially promising new pile materials such as fiber reinforced polymers are typically transversely isotropic materials. Experimental studies have shown that transversely isotropic materials have a high ratio of section longitudinal modulus to the section in‐plane shear modulus (E_zz/G_xz) compared to the value for isotropic materials. The high modulus ratio leads to a more significant shear deformation effect in beam bending. To account for the shear deformation effect, the Timoshenko Beam Theory has been adopted in deriving the solutions for the load–deflection response of transversely isotropic piles under lateral loads instead of the Classical (Euler–Bernoulli) Beam Theory. The load–deflection responses depend on the shear effect coefficient, the lateral soil resistance, the embedment ratio, and the boundary conditions. The deflection of the pile, if the shear deformation effect is considered, is always larger than if it is neglected. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

砂土地基和粉质黏土地基基坑悬臂开挖离心模型试验

分别开展砂土和粉质黏土两种典型土质条件下基坑悬臂式开挖离心模型试验,详细叙述试验过程中所要解决的关键问题,并提出合理的解决方案。通过对比分析两组试验结果,得到以下结论：非饱和土地基制备中参数控制困难,分层夯实法有待进一步改进,而砂雨法制备的砂土地基参数可控性更好;两组试验的结果有差异,砂土地基试验所呈现的土压力、地基变形、支护弯矩的变化规律更好,因此,岩土离心试验可适当考虑以砂土代替非饱和土;对于采用悬臂式支护结构的基坑,开挖引起的地表沉降曲线在砂土中呈指数型,而在粉质黏土中呈直线型;开挖引起的粉质黏土地基土体位移范围较砂土地基更大;开挖引起的砂土中挡墙弯矩较粉质黏土更大,砂土和粉质黏土中最大弯矩位置都随开挖逐渐下移;在砂土试验中开挖引起主动区土压力各处均减小,而在粉质黏土试验中开挖引起土压力在挡墙底有增大趋势。该基坑工程离心模型试验过程及数据处理方法可为进一步试验提供参考。     

黄河三角洲粉质土的动模量和阻尼比试验研究

结合室内共振柱和动三轴实验,对黄河三角洲饱和原状粉质土体(粉土、粉砂、粉质粘土)动模量和阻尼比的影响因素和发展规律进行了详细的研究。研究表明,在粉粒和粘粒含量对动模量的共同影响中,粉粒含量起着举足起重的作用;侧限压力对归一化剪模比和阻尼比的影响均较显著,相比粘粒含量的影响不大。通过与Seed建议的砂土及饱和粘土的G/Gmax~曲线和~曲线进行对比,结果显示研究区的粉质土相比一般的砂土和饱和粘土而言,其动力变形特性更接近于砂土,但是与砂土也存在着非常明显的差异;其发展规律与其他地区沉积粉质土也较为不同,具有明显的区域性。采用修正了的Hard in-D rnevich模型和对数模型分别对G/Gmax~曲线和~曲线进行拟合,给出了三类粉质土的归一化动力变形G/Gmax~/r关系曲线,对模型中有关参数的影响因素做了初步的探讨。     

MICP联合纤维加筋改性钙质砂的动力特性研究

为了提高我国南海钙质砂地基的抗液化性能,提出利用微生物诱导碳酸钙沉积（MICP）技术联合纤维加筋技术对钙质砂进行改性处理。通过开展动三轴试验,对比分析了改性前后钙质砂试样的动应变、动孔压、应力−应变滞回曲线以及动弹性模量的发展规律和演化特征,并结合扫描电镜（SEM）试验探究了MICP和纤维加筋技术对钙质砂的联合改性机制。研究结果表明：（1）MICP技术可以明显改善钙质砂试样的抗变形与抗液化性能,相比于未胶结处理试样,仅MICP处理试样的动应变和动孔压分别降低了95.74% 和 92.46%;（2）纤维的掺入进一步提升了MICP的改性效果,相比于仅MICP处理试样,MICP和纤维加筋联合处理试样的动应变和动孔压分别降低了 74.32%和 74.18%;（3）MICP 和纤维加筋技术通过减轻试样在循环荷载作用下的循环活动强度和能量耗散、提高试样的动弹性模量和减小动弹性模量的衰减速率,从而实现试样抗变形与抗液化性能的显著提高;（4）SEM 试验分析结果表明,MICP 与纤维对钙质砂动力特性的改善具有协同作用。纤维的掺入为细菌提供了更多的附着场所,促进了碳酸钙晶体的生成量,该部分碳酸钙不仅增加了颗粒间的胶结强度,同时也将纤维固定在砂颗粒上增强了纤维网的约束作用。     

A three-dimensional mechanistic-empirical model for geocell-reinforced unpaved roads

Geocell is a three-dimensional geosynthetic product that was originally developed to confine granular bases and minimize permanent deformation of unpaved roads. Many laboratory and field tests have demonstrated the effectiveness of geocell reinforcement in roadway constructions. However, the lack of a well-established design method that can quantify the benefit of geocell reinforcement has greatly limited the application of geocell in roadways. This paper presents the development of a three-dimensional mechanistic-empirical (M-E) model for geocell-reinforced unpaved roads. The constitutive equation for the tangential resilient modulus of the base material was derived under a general three-dimensional condition. Two analytical models were introduced to estimate the compaction- and repeated load-induced residual stresses in the base layer. These analytical models consider the material properties and construction effects in a rational way thus can be used for various situations. Finally, the proposed M-E model was validated against the test results from four unpaved road sections. Comparisons between the calculated results and the test data show that the three-dimensional M-E model effectively simulated the permanent deformation behavior of geocell-reinforced unpaved roads under a large number of load repetitions, given that the unpaved road was stable under a repeated load.     

土工格栅加筋土地基平板载荷试验研究

在近年来的岩土工程实践中,土工合成材料加筋土技术得到越来越广泛的应用。采用平板载荷板试验方法,进行了多组加筋砂土地基模型试验,监测和分析了不同加筋材料（双向格栅与四向格栅）和加筋层数对土工格栅加筋土地基承载特性的影响。研究结果表明：土工格栅加筋土地基与无筋地基相比,承载性能得到改善,双层加筋明显优于单层加筋;土工格栅加筋限制了浅层地基的侧向变形,相同荷载下地基沉降减小,可恢复变形增大;模型试验中测得加筋材料应变和拉力很小,与土工格栅强度相比,拉伸模量对加筋土地基承载力的贡献更大。     

条形基础下水平布置纤维增强聚合物筋材地基试验研究

纤维增强聚合物(FRP)具有耐腐蚀、耐水、耐高温、高强度、高弹性模量、质量轻等优点,将其用作加筋材料不仅能显著提高加筋地基的加筋效果,还能有效解决传统加筋材料的耐久性问题。分别对纯砂和5种水平加筋方式进行了加筋地基模型试验,测试了各级荷载下的地基沉降、FRP的应变及土压力数值,并初步探讨了FRP加筋的作用机制。试验结果表明,加筋能显著提高地基承载力和减小地基沉降,特别是双层水平加筋方式的加筋效果更加明显,而锚固件的设置对加筋效果的影响并不大,水平FRP筋材主要起到了土压力扩散作用。     

Effects of base geogrid on geocell-reinforced foundation beds

The effect of a base geogrid layer below the geocell mattress in sand, sand overlying soft clay, and soft clay foundation beds has been studied using a series of laboratory scale load tests. A rigid circular model footing was used to apply static monotonic loading on the foundation beds with and without geocell reinforcement. The model test results show that the provision of an additional layer of planar geogrid at the base of the geocell mattress further increases the performance of the footing in terms of bearing capacity and reduction in surface heave of the foundation bed. It is also observed that the beneficial effect of the base geogrid layer becomes negligible with increasing height of the geocell mattress beyond the influence of the depth of the footing. Strain measurements in the base geogrid layer indicate that it is more effective with the limited heights of the geocell mattress. The earth pressure cells embedded in the subgrade soil provide evidence that when the base geogrid is provided below the geocell mattress, the footing pressure is distributed more uniformly over an extended area.     

Influence of geocell reinforcement on uplift response of belled piles

Piles are frequently used to transfer the heavy compressive loads to strong soil layers located in the depth of bed. In addition, such piles may be subjected to combination of repeated compressive and tensile loads due to earthquake, wind, etc. This paper describes a series of laboratory model tests, at unit gravity, performed on belled pile, embedded in unreinforced and geocell-reinforced beds. The tests were performed to evaluate the beneficial effect of geocell in decreasing the downward and upward displacements and performance improvement of the uplift response of belled pile under repeated compressive and tensile loads. Pile displacements due to fifty load repetitions were recorded. The influence of the height of geocell above the bell of pile, an additional geocell layer at the base of belled pile, and the number of load cycles on pile displacements were investigated. The test results show that the geocell reinforcement reduces the magnitude of the final upward displacement. It also acts as a displacement retardant, and changes the behaviour of belled pile from unstable response condition due to excessive upward pile displacement in unreinforced bed to approximately steady response condition. Therefore, the geocell reinforcement permits higher tensile loads or increased cycling. The efficiency of reinforcement in reducing the maximum upward displacement of the pile (i.e. pull-out resistance) was increased by increasing the height of geocell above the bell of the pile. Furthermore, the comparison showed that a specific improvement in upward and downward displacement and the stability against uplift can be achieved using an additional geocell layer at the base. The geocell reinforcement may reduce the required length of pile shaft, consequently reducing required excavation, backfill, and pile’s material. Simple dimensional analysis showed the need for an increased stiffness of the geosynthetic components in order to match prototype-scale performance similitude.     

A Review on the Design,Applications and Numerical Modeling of Geocell Reinforced Soil

For improving the stability and load carrying capacity of weak subgrade, strengthening methods are to be followed in the field. Among the various approaches, geocells have been identified as an effective soil reinforcement technique for improving soft subgrade behaviour. The three-dimensional honeycomb structure of geocell offers more lateral confinement to the infill soil resulting in improved load carrying capacity. This led to the widespread use of geocells for different geotechnical applications like pavements, foundations, embankments, slope protection, erosion control etc. Many researchers in the past have confirmed the suitability of geocell reinforcement through their experimental, numerical and field studies. In this paper, a comprehensive review of the reinforcement mechanisms, design aspect and numerical modelling techniques of geocell reinforced soil is provided. In addition, this paper highlights the various field application scenarios where different types of geocells have been used and explores the research challenges and scope for further research in this field.

     

循环荷载及静载下土工格室加筋路堤模型试验研究

为探究土工格室加筋路堤在循环荷载及静载下的各种性能,利用美国GCTS公司的USTX-2000加载装置进行加载,通过改变加筋层数、格室高度,格室焊距对土工格室加筋路堤进行一系列模型试验。对各种工况下加筋路堤极限承载力、长期循环荷载及固定振次循环荷载后极限承载力的变化进行研究。试验表明,土工格室加筋能显著提高地基极限承载力并能显著减小坡顶和坡中临界破坏时的法向累积变形,在加筋间距一定的情况下,加筋层数增加和格室高度增大均可不同程度提高极限承载力并减小临界破坏时坡顶法向累积变形,格室焊距的减小也可在一定程度提高极限承载力,格室焊距对边坡法向变形影响不大;长期循环荷载下固定间距加筋层数对路堤竖向累积沉降量影响不大,而对边坡坡顶法向累积变形有一定影响,格室高度增大和格室焊距减小均可不同程度减小路堤竖向累积沉降量和坡面法向累积变形;越靠近加载点处,路堤土压力值受加筋影响越显著,加筋提高了土体刚度和密实度,使加筋路堤土压力值较无筋路堤明显增大;对于无筋路堤,改变动载幅值和振次均导致振后极限承载力有不同程度的降低,而对于加筋路堤,当动载幅值≥30 kPa或动载振次≥1 000时,振后极限承载力均有不同程度的提高。     

Reinforcement analysis and design of mechanical roof bolting systems in horizontally bedded mine roofs

Summary In order to design roof bolting systems safely and economically, it is essential to understand the flexural behaviour of the immediate roof. Based on the strata sequence, the strata in the immediate roof are divided into three types. The flexural behaviour of the three strata types are investigated in terms of the following effects: roof span, horizontal stress, thickness and Young's modulus of the lowest strata.The suspension reinforcement mechanism is analysed using beam-column theory. The equations for the maximum bending stress, deflection and transferred bolt load for the bolted strata are derived. In the analysis, the bolt load is assumed to be a point load and a horizontal stress is uniformly applied to each stratum. The friction reinforcement mechanism is also investigated. The major function of roof bolting in this case is to create frictional resistance by tensioning the roof bolts so that the individual layers are combined into one single thick layer.A computer program and nomographs are developed for the determination of proper bolting pattern and bolt tension. It is hoped that this development can lead to maximum safety with minimum cost for the design of roof bolting systems in underground coal mines.     

加筋材料动态松弛有限元模型的建立及应用

为分析加筋材料的抗弯刚度对加筋性能的影响,加筋材料采用梁单元形式。基于动态松弛法,通过定义梁单元的刚度矩阵,求解内力矢量,随后定义虚拟质量密度而建立总质量矩阵,将加筋材料的梁单元有限元模型嵌入到已有的动态松弛法求解程序中。通过对简支梁的简单加载模拟验证了该梁单元模型的准确性能。随后,将该有限元模型与已有的动态松弛法计算程序结合（含砂土本构及弱面单元模型）,对加筋砂土地基室内模型试验进行了数值模拟。将梁单元的模拟结果与杆单元（梁单元的特例）模拟结果进行了比较,并分别探讨了抗拉刚度和抗弯刚度对加筋砂土地基承载性能的影响。结果表明：抗拉刚度对承载能力的影响较小;抗弯刚度对承载力的影响程度与加筋材料的布置形式有关,特别是当加筋砂土中出现剪切带以后,其影响逐渐增大。因此,在分析加筋砂土结构的增强机制时,建议采用梁单元（具有一定的抗弯刚度）对加筋材料进行模拟。     

Performance of surface footing on geocell-reinforced soft clay beds

This paper presents the results of laboratory model tests carried out to develop an understanding of the behaviour of geocell-reinforced soft clay foundations under circular loading. Natural silty clay was used in this study. The geocells were prepared using biaxial polymer grid. The performance of the reinforced bed is quantified using non-dimensional factors i.e., Bearing capacity improvement factor (I_f) and Percentage reduction in footing settlement (PRS). The test results demonstrate that the geocell mattress redistributes the footing load over a wider area thereby improving the performance of the footing. The load carrying capacity of the clay bed is increased by a factor of up to about 4.5 times that of unreinforced bed. From the pressure-settlement responses, it is observed that the geocell-reinforced foundation bed behaves as a much stiffer system compared to the unreinforced case indicating that a substantial reduction in footing settlement can be achieved by providing geocell reinforcement in the soft clay bed. The maximum reduction in footing settlement obtained with the provision of geocell mattress of optimum size placed close to the footing is around 90%. Further improvement in performance is obtained with provision of an additional planar geogrid layer at the base of the geocell mattress.