Why people matter in ocean governance: Incorporating human dimensions into large-scale marine protected areas

Large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs) are rapidly increasing. Due to their sheer size, complex socio-political realities, and distinct local cultural perspectives and economic needs, implementing and managing LSMPAs successfully creates a number of human dimensions challenges. It is timely and important to explore the human dimensions of LSMPAs. This paper draws on the results of a global “Think Tank on the Human Dimensions of Large Scale Marine Protected Areas” involving 125 people from 17 countries, including representatives from government agencies, non-governmental organizations, academia, professionals, industry, cultural/indigenous leaders and LSMPA site managers. The overarching goal of this effort was to be proactive in understanding the issues and developing best management practices and a research agenda that address the human dimensions of LSMPAs. Identified best management practices for the human dimensions of LSMPAs included: integration of culture and traditions, effective public and stakeholder engagement, maintenance of livelihoods and wellbeing, promotion of economic sustainability, conflict management and resolution, transparency and matching institutions, legitimate and appropriate governance, and social justice and empowerment. A shared human dimensions research agenda was developed that included priority topics under the themes of scoping human dimensions, governance, politics, social and economic outcomes, and culture and tradition. The authors discuss future directions in researching and incorporating human dimensions into LSMPAs design and management, reflect on this global effort to co-produce knowledge and re-orient practice on the human dimensions of LSMPAs, and invite others to join a nascent community of practice on the human dimensions of large-scale marine conservation.     

Mind the gap: Addressing the shortcomings of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning

A blind faith in the ability of MPAs to counteract loss of biodiversity is fraught with risk, especially when MPAs are poorly planned and when the consequences of establishing MPAs are not adequately thought out. MPA shortcomings are categorized as one of five main types: (1) MPAs that by virtue of their small size or poor design are ecologically insufficient; (2) inappropriately planned or managed MPAs; (3) MPAs that fail due to the degradation of the unprotected surrounding ecosystems; (4) MPAs that do more harm than good due to displacement and unintended consequences of management; and (5) MPAs that create a dangerous illusion of protection when in fact no protection is occurring. A strategic alternative, which fully utilizes the strengths of the MPA tool while avoiding the pitfalls, can overcome these shortcomings: integrating marine protected area planning in broader marine spatial planning and ocean zoning efforts.     

Systematic marine conservation planning in data-poor regions: Socioeconomic data is essential

Systematic planning for conservation is highly regarded but relies on spatially explicit data that are lacking in many areas of conservation concern. The decision support tool Marxan is applied to a reef system in the central Philippines where 30 marine protected areas (MPAs) have been established in communities without much use of biophysical data. The intent was to explore how Marxan might assist with the legally required expansion to protect 15% of marine waters, and how existing MPAs might affect that process. Results show that biophysical information alone did not provide much guidance in identifying patterns of conservation importance in areas where the data are poor. Socioeconomic data were needed to distinguish among possible areas for protection; but here, as elsewhere in marine environments, the availability of such data was very limited. In the final analysis, local knowledge and integrated understanding of socioeconomic realities may offer the best spatially explicit information. The 30 existing MPAs, which encompassed a small proportion of the reef system, did not limit future options in developing a suite of MPAs on a broader scale. Rather, they appeared to generate the support for MPAs that is obligatory for any larger zoning effort. In summary, establishing MPAs based on community-driven criteria has biological and social value, but efforts should be made to collect ecological and socioeconomic data to guide the continued creation of MPAs.     

Spatial and temporal characteristics of grouper spawning aggregations in marine protected areas in Palau,western Micronesia

In Palau, Ngerumekaol and Ebiil Channels are spawning aggregation sites that have been protected from fishing since 1976 and 2000, respectively. Groupers and other targeted fisheries species were monitored monthly over a 1.5 year period at these two spawning aggregations and two nearby exploited reference sites where grouper formerly aggregated to spawn. At the protected aggregation sites, three grouper species (Plectropomus areolatus, Epinephelus polyphekadion, and Epinephelus fuscoguttatus) accounted for 78% of the abundance and 85% of the biomass of all resource species surveyed but comprised <1% of the total abundance and biomass at reference sites not protected from fishing that formally harbored spawning aggregations. Abundance and biomass of grouper species pooled were 54% and 72% higher, respectively, at Ngerumekaol compared to Ebiil. Comparisons with data from the same locations in 1995–1996 showed order of magnitude declines in abundance of E. polyphekadion at both locations. The lower numbers of E. fuscoguttatus and the near absence of E. polyphekadion at Ebiil may reflect the effects of previous and current overexploitation.     

High-resolution seabed imagery as a tool for biodiversity conservation planning on continental margins

Submarine canyons increase seascape diversity on continental margins and harbour diverse and abundant biota vulnerable to fishing. Because many canyons are fished, there is an increasing emphasis on including them in conservation areas on continental margins. Here we report on sponge diversity and bottom cover in three canyons of South-eastern Australia, test the performance of biological and abiotic surrogates, and evaluate how biological data from detailed seabed surveys can be used in conservation planning in these habitats. The biological data on sponge assemblage structure and species richness were obtained from 576 seafloor images taken between 148 and 472 m depth, yielding 65 morphospecies. Seafloor characteristics were similar within and between canyons, being almost exclusively composed of sediments with very few rocky substrates of higher relief. This environmental homogeneity did not, however, translate into biological uniformity of the megabenthos, and environmental factors were consequently poor predictors of biological features. By contrast, total bottom cover of sponges was highly correlated with species richness and served as a good proxy for species-level data in this situation. Design strategies that employ information on cover or richness of sponges provided a large dividend in conservation effort by dramatically reducing the number of spatial units required to achieve a specified conservation target of 50–90% of species to be included in reserves. This demonstrates that image-derived data are useful for the design of reserves in the deep sea, particularly where extractive sampling is not warranted. Using biological data on the sponge megabenthos to identify conservation units can also minimise socio-economic costs to fisheries because of a smaller geographic and bathymetric ambit of conservation areas.     

Establishing a transboundary network of marine protected areas: Diplomatic and management options for the east African context

International conservation efforts and cooperation are increasingly necessary, particularly at an ecoregion level, for the achievement of international targets for protecting biodiversity and degradation of ecosystems. Whereas more than 11 percent of land is protected, less than 1 percent of marine space is similarly protected. Transboundary networks of marine protected areas and transboundary marine protected areas (TBMPAs) are an essential form of cooperation for meeting these international targets. This paper explores the diplomatic and political options for regional and sub-regional cooperation between Tanzania, Mozambique, and South Africa, for the establishment of transboundary conservation mechanisms in the Eastern African Marine Ecoregion (EAME). Five options for the establishment and management of these mechanisms are presented, together with actions to be taken to facilitate cooperation. The paper deal with a proposed strategy for the implementation of transboundary conservation mechanisms, focusing on TBMPAs, between the three countries at a biogeographical/sub-regional level, supported by lessons learnt in other transboundary marine conservation experiences. The paper concludes that although political will may exist among States sharing borders to establish TBMPAs, the complexity of dealing with sub-regional realities is a difficult obstacle to overcome in a single step. The situation at each border must be taken into account in order that different multi-scale and multivariate solutions, supported by a common baseline will ultimately converge in a common trilateral framework. Finally, a two-step approach seems to be in course with the declaration (October 2009) of a TBMPA linking Ponta do Ouro in Mozambique to iSimangaliso Wetland Park in South Africa, following one of the options formerly presented.     

The role of international environmental instruments in enhancing transboundary marine protected areas: An approach in East Africa

The increasing degradation of marine ecosystems has led to multiple calls for greater protection through the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). If created at the ecosystem or ecoregion level, MPAs will likely straddle maritime boundaries and therefore necessitate international cooperation. International environmental law and international law of the sea may facilitate cooperation between States in creating transboundary MPAs. The extent to which this body of law is actually or potentially useful for the establishment of transboundary MPAs is examined in the context of the East African Marine Ecoregion, focusing on Mozambique, South Africa, and Tanzania. A general survey and assessment of the applicable global, regional, and bilateral instruments in relation to the three States is conducted. Although some global instruments are relevant in the East African context, regional and bilateral instruments are more conducive to the establishment of transboundary MPAs. The article concludes that although a trilateral agreement between Mozambique, South Africa, and Tanzania would be an ideal vehicle for the establishment of a transboundary network of MPAs addressing both national and ecoregional conservation interests, a separate solution at each border will be the first step towards this goal.     

山东省渤海海洋保护区典型海域表层海水微生物群落多样性分析

海洋微生物在生态系统循环中发挥重要作用。为系统了解山东省渤海海洋保护区表层海水微生物群落多样性,作者利用Illumina高通量测序及生物信息学分析技术研究了12个水体样本的菌群构成和多样性特征。实验结果表明,山东渤海海洋保护区典型海域表层海水微生物群落丰富,12个水体样品OTU分属于25门、56纲、103目、163科、227属;门、纲、目、科、属分类等级上的优势类群分别为变形菌门(Proteobacteria)(57.95%)、α-变形菌纲(Alphaproteobacteria)(21.88%)、黄杆菌目(Flavobacteriales)(4.31%)、红细菌科(Rhodobacteraceae)(10.68%)、Candidatus portiera(7.94%);保护区内表层海水微生物具有其独特的菌群特征和多样性。本研究结果为进一步认识海洋微生物多样性与海洋生态环境保护的关系奠定了基础。     

Assessing the quality of data required to identify effective marine protected areas

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of currently available substrate data to designate marine reserves to meet conservation objectives. The case study site is Lyme Bay (approx. 2460 km²), in the western English Channel. An area of 240 km² in Lyme Bay was designated ‘closed to bottom dredging’ in July 2008 with the aim of protecting reefs which are an important habitat for Eunicella verrucosa (pink sea fan). The effects of using different substrate data resolution on the selection of sites to protect a range of biotopes using the Marxan package are determined. The effect of including a closed area on the efficiency of a marine reserve network is also investigated. Findings suggest that substrate data did not capture the biodiversity of the area and that using no data at all was equally effective. If low resolution data are all that are available then other options, such as expert opinion, or other data, such as activity use information could be used instead. Including a predefined closed area into the analysis led to an increase in area required to meet conservation goals using high resolution biotope data. It also increased the area of the reserve using the three substrate layers with no increase in protection for biotopes. This suggests that when designing networks of marine protected area sites, including current protected areas may be inefficient, resulting in larger areas being protected with no increased conservation of marine biodiversity. Policy makers must be prepared to adapt management in light of these findings and be aware of the shortcomings of the data available for use in marine conservation planning.     

A regulation-based classification system for marine protected areas: A response to Dudley et al.

Dudley et al. [9] commented on our paper [11], arguing that the current IUCN objective-based categorization of protected areas, which is also used in marine protected areas (MPAs), should not be abandoned and replaced by the new regulation-based classification system [11]. Here we clarify that we do not advocate replacing the current IUCN categories, but highlight the benefits of using both the objective-based IUCN categories and the new regulation-based classification when applied to MPAs. With an increasing number of MPA types being implemented, most of them multiple-use areas zoned for various purposes, assessing ecological and socioeconomic benefits is key for advancing conservation targets and policy objectives. Although the IUCN categories can be used both in terrestrial and marine systems, they were not designed to follow a gradient of impacts and there is often a mismatch between stated objectives and implemented regulations. The new regulation-based classification system addresses these problems by linking impacts of activities in marine systems with MPA and zone classes in a simple and globally applicable way. Applying both the IUCN categories and the regulation-based classes will increase transparency when assessing marine conservation goals.     

He who hesitates is lost: Why conservation in the Mediterranean Sea is necessary and possible now

Although significant advancements on protecting marine biodiversity and ecosystems of the Mediterranean Sea have been made, much remains to be done to achieve the targets set by the Convention for Biological Diversity (and the Barcelona Convention) and ratified by the 21 Mediterranean governments. Particularly, these targets require the design and implementation of an ecologically representative network of marine protected areas that covers 10% of the Mediterranean surface by 2020. Despite the many efforts to gather spatial information about threats to the Mediterranean and conservation planning initiatives that identify sensitive areas for conservation, we are far from achieving this target. In this paper, we briefly review existing and proposed conservation initiatives at various scales throughout the Mediterranean to recognise those that have political endorsement and those that serve more as lobbying tools. We then propose a model process that can be applied to advance marine spatial planning within the eleven ecologically and biologically significant areas (EBSAs) through a multi-step process designed for moving conservation forward in this particularly complex region. The proposed process combines tenets of professional urban/regional planning and systematic conservation planning. As shown with two specific examples, despite some conventional wisdom, there is enough information on the Mediterranean Sea to move forward with ecosystem-based marine spatial management for conservation purposes using the EBSAs as a starting point - and the time is right to do so.     

Increased predation of juvenile European spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas) in a marine protected area

One of the aims of Mediterranean marine protected areas (MPAs) is to increase populations of exploited species, such as the European spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas), which is considered a key species for its commercial and ecological value. Monitoring of temporal patterns in abundance of early benthic stages of P. elephas indicated that predation may be higher inside the Medes Islands MPA relative to adjacent control sites. Tethering experiments were performed to test whether predation rates actually differed within and outside the MPA. Relative mortality of recently‐settled juveniles inside the MPA was much higher than in control sites in adjacent non‐protected areas. Treatments with and without shelter indicated that predation on recently‐settled juvenile spiny lobsters was moderated by the availability of suitable shelter. The decline or absence of fish predators in the fished area may be the reason why juvenile lobsters outside the MPA experience lower predation than within the MPA.     

Developing a framework for displaced fishing effort programs in marine protected areas

As marine protected areas (MPAs) continue to be established, measures to address displaced effort are likely to become increasingly relevant. Recent experiences of displaced fishing effort programs for MPAs and recreational fishing reserves in Australia, together with two examples from the United States, are described. A practical framework for addressing displaced fishing effort is developed, which explores the likely displaced-effort scenarios and options when planning spatial commercial fishing closures for an MPA.     

Murky waters: Media reporting of marine protected areas in South Australia

Given the public's limited knowledge of marine environments, informing the public about marine protection presents a unique challenge. Studies have shown a well-informed public is more likely to support environmental issues and that newspapers, in particular, are considered a credible media source. This research investigates media representations of current South Australian efforts to establish a marine protected area (MPA). Articles from five newspapers between 1999 and 2006 were examined for content in the following areas: local marine ecology, the policy process of MPA establishment and stakeholder views. The research found that newspapers concentrated their reporting on opposing stakeholders, opinions and were largely ineffective in conveying the significance of the local marine ecology, the economic benefits of the MPA, and the delayed establishment process. These information gaps have left the public poorly informed, and therefore, there is unlikely to be significant pressure to overcome the continued delays in the establishment process.     

Marine protected areas in Australia: Towards a coordinated rock lobster industry position

Plans by government to accelerate the establishment of a national representative system of marine protected areas (NRSMPAs) in Australia have caused increasing disquiet within the fishing industry. Rock lobster fishers have raised concerns regarding plans to establish large “multiple‐use” MPAs that may or may not contain a substantial no‐take component in the continental shelf waters adjacent to the coast. Key industry concerns including the potential impacts on present and future harvest rates are examined. The industry response to government MPA policy in each of the major jurisdictions is outlined. An industry position developed at the National Rock Lobster Congress in Perth, Western Australia (September 2003) is put forward. The position advocates the need for an adjustment scheme to account for displaced effort, the need for government commitment to the development of management plans that include the long‐term monitoring of all MPAs, and the need for a thorough risk assessment process to be conducted before the establishment of an MPA. The issues raised in this paper should be relevant to the establishment of MPAs in an international context.     

Questionable interpretation of the Precautionary Principle in Australia's implementation of ‘no-take’ marine protected areas

The introduction of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Australia has resulted in an increase in the number and total area of ‘no-take’ zones. The resulting closures impact all forms of commercial and recreational fishing in and around them despite international recognition indicating that Australian fisheries were already well managed according to ecological sustainable development guidelines. Furthermore, it is recognised within Australia that most MPAs are not designed to provide protection from the full suite of known threats that can affect biodiversity and long-term ecosystem viability. By directing MPA management disproportionately towards comprehensive no-take zones that affect fishing practices that are already required by state and federal legislation to adhere to sustainability requirements, the suite of threats affecting both protected and unprotected areas can be left inadequately and/or inappropriately managed. It is shown in this paper that the modified definition of the Precautionary Principle, which was developed specifically for the MPA process in Australia, is not in keeping with accepted international definitions and guidelines for the use of precaution. It is argued that the development of a definition of precaution to justify a predetermined output (MPAs) devalues the sound use of scientific principles and diminishes the conservation outcome. Furthermore, by distracting efforts from determining and managing the full suite of recognised threats, the value of what protection is provided in Australia's marine protected areas is eroded further.     

The management performance of marine protected areas in the North-east Atlantic Ocean

In the North-east Atlantic Ocean there are 550 inshore and offshore MPAs established to accomplish a high diversity of objectives, which can be classified into 24 different types of MPA designations. Only 153 of these MPAs have a management plan (MgP) --the basic tool required for an effective management. Amongst these, only 66 are actually managed, i.e. they have the staff and resources required to operate the plan. A common characteristic of these MPAs is the lack of standardized indicators of their performance. In order to address this issue, an alternative approach was developed based on the assessment of management performance using the expert knowledge and perceptions of managers operating MPAs, a universal source of information that could allow overcoming the usual gaps due to the restrictions in coverage of scientific monitoring and assessments. MgPs showed differences among countries but were homogeneous within each country, reflecting the usual top-down approach in the establishment of MPAs. Compliance with the qualitative objectives present in MgPs was higher than compliance with quantitative ones (87% versus 50%), and the MPAs that most successfully achieved their objectives were those with regular monitoring. This analysis also shows that beyond these objectives, the establishment of an MPA and the activities developed as a consequence of its creation have a positive socio-economic impact on the local human community.     

海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系构建及其在泉州湾的应用

基于海岸带综合管理的理念,通过海域生态环境敏感性评价与海域生物多样性保护重要性评价,综合利用地理相关分析法、空间叠置法等定性和定量分区相结合的方法进行海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区划界,提出了海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系,将规划区域划分为生物多样性重点保护区、生物多样性养护区和生物多样性保护重点监督区.以福建泉州湾为案例,应用海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系,得出泉州湾生物多样性保护极重要地区是泉州湾河口湿地省级自然保护区,泉州湾生物多样性保护比较重要地区是晋江河口、洛阳江河口、晋江南岸地区及清源山.泉州湾海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区方案共划定26个分区,包括生物多样性重点保护区3个,生物多样性养护区14个,生物多样性保护重点监督区9个.泉州湾的应用结果表明,本研究提出的海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系具有一定的可行性和可操作性,可为泉州湾生物多样性保护管理提供重要科学依据.