An ignimbrite veneer deposit: The trail-marker of a pyroclastic flow

The term “ignimbrite veneer deposit” (IVD) is proposed for a new kind of pyroclastic deposit which is found associated with, and passes laterally into, Taupo ignimbrite of valley pond type in New Zealand. It forms a thin layer mantling the landscape over 15,000 km², and is regarded as the deposit from the trailing “tail” of a pyroclastic flow, where a relaxation of shear stress favoured the deposition of the basal part of the flow. The IVD differs little in grain-size from the associated ignimbrite, but it shows a crude internal stratification attributed to the deposition of a succession of layers, one after the passage of each pulse of the pyroclastic flow. It locally contains laterally-discontinuous lenses of coarse pumice (“lee-side lenses”) on the far-vent side of topographic obstacles. In nearvent exposures the Taupo IVD shows lensoid and cross-stratified bed-forms even where it stands on a planar surface, attributed to deposition from a flow travelling at an exceedingly high velocity.An IVD can be distinguished from a poorly sorted pyroclastic fall deposit because the beds in it show more rapid lateral variations in thickness, it may show a low-angle cross-stratification, and it contains carbonised wood from trees not in the position of growth; from the deposit of a wet base surge because it lacks vesicles and strong antidune-like structures and contains carbonised vegetation, and from a hot and dry pyroclastic surge deposit because it possesses a high content of pumice and “fines”.The significance of an IVD is that it records the passage of a pyroclastic flow, where the flow itself has moved farther on.     

A numerical model for the dynamics of pyroclastic flows at Galeras Volcano,Colombia

This paper presents a two-dimensional model for dilute pyroclastic flow dynamics that uses the compressible Navier–Stokes equation coupled with the Diffusion–Convection equation to take into account sedimentation. The model is applied to one of the slopes of Galeras Volcano to show: (1) the temperature evolution with the time; (2) dynamic pressure change; and (3) particle concentration along the computer domain from the eruption to the impact with a topographic barrier located more than 16 km from the source. Two initial solid volumetric fractions are modeled. For both cases, some of the structures located more distant than 10 km could survive, but in all cases the flow remains deadly. This paper shows that a dynamical model of pyroclastic flows can be implemented using personal computers.     

Reconciling pyroclastic flow and surge: the multiphase physics of pyroclastic density currents

Two end-member types of pyroclastic density current are commonly recognized: pyroclastic surges are dilute currents in which particles are carried in turbulent suspension and pyroclastic flows are highly concentrated flows. We provide scaling relations that unify these end-members and derive a segregation mechanism into basal concentrated flow and overriding dilute cloud based on the Stokes number (S_T), the stability factor (Σ_T) and the dense-dilute condition (D_D). We recognize five types of particle behaviors within a fluid eddy as a function of S_T and Σ_T: (1) particles sediment from the eddy, (2) particles are preferentially settled out during the downward motion of the eddy, but can be carried during its upward motion, (3) particles concentrate on the periphery of the eddy, (4) particles settling can be delayed or ‘fast-tracked’ as a function of the eddy spatial distribution, and (5) particles remain homogeneously distributed within the eddy. We extend these concepts to a fully turbulent flow by using a prototype of kinetic energy distribution within a full eddy spectrum and demonstrate that the presence of different particle sizes leads to the density stratification of the current. This stratification may favor particle interactions in the basal part of the flow and D_D determines whether the flow is dense or dilute. Using only intrinsic characteristics of the current, our model explains the discontinuous features between pyroclastic flows and surges while conserving the concept of a continuous spectrum of density currents.     

Temporal and spatial distribution of dam failure events in China

Reservoirs play a vital role in economic development and flood control. Nevertheless, both human and natural factors may lead to dam failures with catastrophic consequences. Analyzing the data of dam failure events from 1954 to 2003 and using the method of energy spectrum analysis, this paper studies the periodicity of dam failures. The rate of failure of different dam ages is analyzed. The climate is the main factor affecting the rate of dam failure. Climate diagrams are used to analyze the spatial distribution of dam failure events in China. High rate of dam failure occurs with 25-year and 12.5-year periods. The distribution of the percentage of dam failure shows an L-shape as a function of service age. The first 5 years of operation is known as the ＂infant period＂, during which, the probability of dam failure is much higher than during any other periods. The failure rate in areas near or north to the 400 mm annual isopluvial line is notably higher than other areas. In areas with high temperature difference among seasons have a high annual average dam failure rate.     

Palaeotemperature determinations for the 1.8-ka Taupo ignimbrite,New Zealand,and implications for the emplacement history of a high-velocity pyroclastic flow

Palaeomagnetic data from lithic clasts collected at 46 sites within layers 1 and 2 of the 1.8-ka Taupo ignimbrite, New Zealand, have been used to determine the palaeotemperatures and thermal structure of the deposit on its emplacement. Equilibrium temperatures from sites less than 30–40 km from vent are 150–300 °C, whereas at greater distances site equilibrium temperatures increase up to 400–500 °C. This variation is seen in both layer 1 and 2 deposits, with values for layer 1 being somewhat cooler, and with its increase in temperature occurring at a greater distance from vent. A temperature maximum at ~50 km from vent coincides with a zone of pink thermal-oxidation colouration of pumices previously inferred to reflect higher emplacement temperatures. Additional palaeomagnetic data collected by us and others from pumice clasts show comparable temperature variations, but these temperature estimates are shown here to be due to a chemical remanence and unreliable for accurate temperature estimates. Cooler temperatures in proximal parts of the ignimbrite are consistent with admixture of >20% cold lithic clasts at source and interaction with the pre-eruption Lake Taupo. The similar, but offset, increases in equilibrium temperatures for medial and distal layers 1 and 2 are consistent with both layers being deposited from the same flow. However, any proximal deposits left by the later, hotter material must have been subsequently eroded, or be so thin that our collection failed to sample them. Radial asymmetries in equilibrium temperatures as well as other physical parameters suggest that the deposit emplacement temperature is primarily determined at source, rather than by interaction with air during transport. These data support previous interpretations that a concentrated basal flow played a dominant role in emplacement and deposition of the Taupo ignimbrite.Editorial responsibility: T. Druitt     

The potential for catastrophic dam failure at Lake Nyos maar,Cameroon

The upper 40 m of Lake Nyos is bounded on the north by a narrow dam of poorly consolidated pyroclastic rocks, emplaced during the eruptive formation of the Lake Nyos maar a few hundred years ago. This 50-m-wide natural dam is structurally weak and is being eroded at an uncertain, but geologically alarming, rate. The eventual failure of the dam could cause a major flood (estimated peak discharge, 17000 m³/s) that would have a tragic impact on downstream areas as far as Nigeria, 108 km away. This serious hazard could be eliminated by lowering the lake level, either by controlled removal of the dam or by construction of a 680-m-long drainage tunnel about 65 m below the present lake surface. Either strategy would also lessen the lethal effects of future massive CO₂ gas releases, such as the one that occurred in August 1986.     

Aeromechanic analysis of pyroclastic density currents past a building

An aeromechanic analysis of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) past a building is carried out on the results of a computer simulation. The analysis shows that PDCs strongly interact with buildings, resulting in turbulent boundary layer separation and recirculation. These results could be used to better assess the hazard of PDCs impacting urban areas and be of service to civil protection authorities and urban planners who work in active volcanic areas.     

Dynamic failure numeric simulations of model concrete-faced rock-fill dam

Conventional numeric simulations of rock-fill dams are generally performed finite element method (FEM), in which the rock-fill body is treated as continuum material. But the rock-fill body possesses strong discontinuity and FEM based on continuum idealization cannot simulate its failure process. The discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) method is just the right tool of solving this problem satisfactorily. In this paper, two kinds of model dams, i.e. homogeneous rock-fill dam and concrete-faced rock-fill dam, are simulated using DDA method, their characteristics of response and failure process are presented. The results from numerical simulations are consistent with those from the author's previous dynamic experiments.     

地球扁率在其历史上的变化

地球的形状变化是地球演化研究的基本问题之一.为了确定地球形状的变化需要了解各个地质历史时期其扁率的变化.根据地球的扁率公式,得到扁率与地球的半径、质量和角速度关系.通过推测地球的半径、质量和角速度的变化量,计算出地球各个时期的扁率.地球的扁率自形成以来总体趋势在减小.地球是个固液混合的椭球体,在各个地质历史时期中地球扁率的真实值应该小于计算的扁率值.     

有缝重力坝动力非线性数值计算模型及其应用

对于有缝重力坝的分析，基于连续介质力学的界面单元-有限元方法难于比较精确地模拟缝间的接触应力，从而无法合理地估算坝体应力与变形。作者对于多体系统和分区连续介质所发展的非连续变形计算力学模型能够根据接触界面的本构特性及其力学和运动学约束条件精确地再现受力过程中界面相互作用力的传递与非连续变形状态，本文将其应用于有缝重力坝的动力分析。实例数值分析表明该模型的计算结果从定性上讲是合理的，并且为判断坝体缝隙的工作状态与界面应力提供了有力的依据。     

Conventional and modern seismic investigations for rock quality determination at a dam site—a case history1

Refraction seismics and modern tomographic surveys were employed at the Platanovrissi dam site on the Nestos river in northern Greece in an effort to investigate the dynamic elastic properties and rockmass condition of gneiss-schist outcropping in the area under investigation. Six seismic refraction traverses were run on the ground surface, inside the exploratory tunnels and between tunnels and the ground surface. The results provided information about the low-velocity surface layer parameters and the stress relief zones on the walls of all the tunnels in which seismic tomography tests were performed. Ultrasonic tests, conducted both in situ and in the laboratory, enabled the determination of the ratio Vp/Vs and the Poisson's ratio calculation. From the tomography data analysis and the geological interpretation of the results, three main velocity zones, ranging between 3500 and 4000, 3000 and 3500 and less than 3000m/s, were detected in each tunnel. High-velocity zones were found to be compatible with the hard rockmass of gneiss-schist material, while moderate velocities are closely related to jointed and fractured zones. Finally, low-velocity zones were well correlated with weathered gneiss-schist material.     

Simulating bed evolution following the Barlin Dam (Taiwan,China) failure with implications for sediment dynamics modeling of dam removal

The failure of the Barlin Dam in Taiwan, China offers an important case study for evaluating concepts in modeling the rapid erosion and channel recovery following intentional and unplanned dam removals. We present a modeling effort that applied a 1D and quasi-2D uncoupled hydraulics and sediment model (NETSTARS) to evaluate how discretization and parameterization influence thefitofbed elevationpredic-tions to observations following dam failure. Our analysis evaluated the model sensitivity to sediment transport function, active layer thickness, and number of stream tubes used to define the cross-section. Results indicate that a) the model is more sensitive to active layer thickness and sediment transport function than to the number of stream tubes, b) development of dam removal models are likely to benefit from varying the active layer thickness in time, and c) increased lateral discretization does not appear to improve model fit in the steep and rapidly changing river environment at our site. We conclude with discussion on differences between, identifying the need for, and general use of 1D, quasi-2D, and fully 2D models in dam removal and failure analysis.     

System identification of a concrete arch dam and calibration of its finite element model

A magnitude 4.3 earthquake occurred near Pacoima Dam on 13 January 2001. An accelerometer array that had been upgraded after the Northridge earthquake recorded the motion with 17 channels on the dam and the dam–foundation interface. Using this data, properties of the first two modes are found from a system identification study. Modal properties are also determined from a forced vibration experiment performed in 2002 and indicate a significantly stiffer system than is estimated from the 2001 earthquake records. The 2001 earthquake, although small, must have induced temporary nonlinearity. This has implications for structural health monitoring. The source of the nonlinear behaviour is believed to be loss of stiffness in the foundation rock. A finite element model of Pacoima Dam is constructed and calibrated to match modal properties determined from the system identification study. A dynamic simulation of the 2001 earthquake response produces computed motions that agree fairly well with the recorded ones. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Factors governing the flow lineation of a large-scale pyroclastic flow — An example in the ata pyroclastic flow deposit,Japan

Schmincke andSwanson (1967) explained laminar flowage structures as indicators for flow direction of pyroclastic flows that show a radial flow pattern away from the source. Several other authors have reported similar examples, but the influence of pre-flow topographic relief has not been analyzed. Flow lineations were measured for the Ata pyroclastic flow deposit, southwestern Japan. This deposit has covered an undulating basement topography. Preferred orientation of crystals and lithic fragments were measured on thin sections cut parallel to sedimentary layering. The following three factors which control the flow lineation have been recognized. 1) Flow lineations oriented radially away from the source, as described by previous authors, were obtained only for samples collected from the surface of the pyroclastic flow plateau where the basement valleys were nearly filled by earlier flow units. 2) Lineations near the floor of narrow valleys were parallel to the strike of the valley. 3) Flow lineations near the wall of valleys tend to be parallel to the dip of the valley walls. These data suggest that the initial radial movement of pyroclastic flows from the source gradually changes direction to parallel the strike of deep valleys due to confining effect of valley wall. Flows which are trapped within a valley, tends to move towards the bottom of the valley just prior to the final settlement. After the basement topographic relief has been filled up with earlier flow units, the later flows maintain their original radial movement until final settlement.     

Analysis of seismic disaster failure mechanism and dam-break simulation of high arch dam

Based on a Chinese national high arch dam located in a meizoseismal region, a nonlinear numerical analysis model of the damage and failure process of a dam-foundation system is established by employing a 3-D deformable distinct element code(3DEC) and its re-development functions. The proposed analysis model considers the dam-foundation-reservoir coupling effect, infl uence of nonlinear contact in the opening and closing of the dam seam surface and abutment rock joints during strong earthquakes, and radiation damping of far fi eld energy dissipation according to the actual workability state of an arch dam. A safety assessment method and safety evaluation criteria is developed to better understand the arch dam system disaster process from local damage to ultimate failure. The dynamic characteristics, disaster mechanism, limit bearing capacity and the entire failure process of a high arch dam under a strong earthquake are then analyzed. Further, the seismic safety of the arch dam is evaluated according to the proposed evaluation criteria and safety assessment method. As a result, some useful conclusions are obtained for some aspects of the disaster mechanism and failure process of an arch dam. The analysis method and conclusions may be useful in engineering practice.