一种获取野外实测目标物BRDF的方法

目标物的二向性反射特性,无论是在遥感模型还是在遥感反演中都扮演着重要的角色,因此,选用正确的方法获得自然条件下目标物的二向性反射特性是遥感定量分析的基石。长期以来,人们往往用在自然条件下（即太阳直射光和天空漫射光同时存在）测得的双向反射率因子（Bidirectional Reflectance Factor,BRF）作为对目标物反射特性的表述,但定义BRF时,对外来辐射环境（即入射辐射亮度的空间分布函数）没有做出明确的规定,事实上,这样测得的BRF值与辐射环境有关,用它来描述目标物的反射特性是不妥当的。本文通过野外测量证实了上述观点,还证明了双向反射率分布函数（Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function,BRDF）与辐射环境无关的事实。同时本文也为读者提供了一种获得野外实测目标物BRDF的方法。实验证明,使用该方法能较准确地获得目标物在自然条件下的BRDF。     

Modeling three-dimensional forest structures to drive canopy radiative transfer simulations of bidirectional reflectance factor

Three-dimensional (3-D) Monte Carlo-based radiative transfer (MCRT) models are usually used for benchmarking in intercomparisons of the canopy radiative transfer (RT) simulations. However, the 3-D MCRT models are rarely applied to develop remote sensing algorithms to estimate essential climate variables of forests, due mainly to the difficulties in obtaining realistic stand structures for different forest biomes over regional to global scales. Fortunately, some of important tree structure parameters such as canopy height and tree density distribution have been available globally. This enables to run the intermediate complexities of the 3-D MCRT models. We consequently developed a statistical approach to generate forest structures with intermediate complexities depending on the inputs of canopy height and tree density. It aims at facilitating applications of the 3-D MCRT models to develop remote sensing retrieval algorithms. The proposed approach was evaluated using field measurements of two boreal forest stands at Estonia and USA, respectively. Results demonstrated that the simulations of bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) based on the measured forest structures agreed well with the BRF based on the generated structures from the proposed approach with the root mean square error (RMSE) and relative RMSE (rRMSE) ranging from 0.002 to 0.006 and from 0.7% to 19.8%, respectively. Comparison of the computed BRF with corresponding MODIS reflectance data yielded RMSE and rRMSE lower than 0.03 and 20%, respectively. Although the results from the current study are limited in two boreal forest stands, our approach has the potential to generate stand structures for different forest biomes.     

Mapping of waterlogged areas and salt affected soils in the IGNP command area

Visual interpretation of IRS LISS-II data authenticated by ground truth was carried out for detection of waterlogged areas and characterization of salt-affected soils. The deep blue tone depicting surface ponding (stagnant ponded zone) resulted from the seepage and accumulation of irrigation water through the course sandy mass. Such unit was mostly confined to the localized low-lying areas. These data have also revealed interdunal seepage lake within the buried paleo-channel of Saraswati possibly due to submerging of excess Ghaggar floodwater. Flood irrigation, sandy soils, cultivation of high water requirement crops and presence of hard gypsiferrous pans in the shallow depths were responsible for development of waterlogged conditions in the area. The grey to yellowish white patch around the waterlogging features represented surface salt efflorescence. The grey to greyish red represented the potential waterlogging zone. Based on the analytical data, soils were characterized as moderate to highly saline and showed the presence of significant amount of CaCO₃ (>2 mm) throughout the solum. The chemical analysis of water samples revealed the presence of high to very high quantity of soluble salts dominated by chlorides and sulfates of sodium, calcium and magnesium.     

Remote sensing and GIS in identification of soil constraints for sustainable development in Bhilwara district,Rajasthan

Soil is an integral part of ecosystem nurturing the biological system. Sustainable management of soil resources based on the consideration of constraints is the key to check land degradation and maintain productivity of biological system. To meet the objective remote sensing and GIS technology has been employed for identification of soil constraints in resource potential Bhilwara district. IRS LISS-III FCC images were interpreted for soil constraints using physiography soil approach, verified through field checking and laboratory analysis. On IRS LISS-III FCC images the salt affected soils of Kotri and Taswaria appeared in bright white to light grey tone, smooth texture with white mottles. These were also verified during ground truth and soil analysis for salinity (EC 2.90–3.32 dS m⁻¹) and sodicity (pH 9.50–9.86 and ESP 17.60–19.05). Similarly on the LISS III FCC, constraints due to water erosion near Bir, Sareri and Vijaypura soil series were apparent in light grey to whitish tone, intercepted by medium grey streaks indicating streams and exposed sub-soil. The constraints due to shallow depth associated with rock out crops and hilly areas of Balda and Delwara series appeared in greenish grey tone and coarse texture. There was close relationship between image characteristics, field observation and analytical data.     

Canopy foliar nitrogen retrieved from airborne hyperspectral imagery by correcting for canopy structure effects

A statistical relationship between canopy mass-based foliar nitrogen concentration (%N) and canopy bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) has been repeatedly demonstrated. However, the interaction between leaf properties and canopy structure confounds the estimation of foliar nitrogen. The canopy scattering coefficient (the ratio of BRF and the directional area scattering factor, DASF) has recently been suggested for estimating %N as it suppresses the canopy structural effects on BRF. However, estimation of %N using the scattering coefficient has not yet been investigated for longer spectral wavelengths (>855 nm). We retrieved the canopy scattering coefficient for wavelengths between 400 and 2500 nm from airborne hyperspectral imagery, and then applied a continuous wavelet analysis (CWA) to the scattering coefficient in order to estimate %N. Predictions of %N were also made using partial least squares regression (PLSR). We found that %N can be accurately retrieved using CWA (R² = 0.65, RMSE = 0.33) when four wavelet features are combined, with CWA yielding a more accurate estimation than PLSR (R² = 0.47, RMSE = 0.41). We also found that the wavelet features most sensitive to %N variation in the visible region relate to chlorophyll absorption, while wavelet features in the shortwave infrared regions relate to protein and dry matter absorption. Our results confirm that %N can be retrieved using the scattering coefficient after correcting for canopy structural effect. With the aid of high-fidelity airborne or upcoming space-borne hyperspectral imagery, large-scale foliar nitrogen maps can be generated to improve the modeling of ecosystem processes as well as ecosystem-climate feedbacks.     

Diurnal trends in reflectance of bare soil surfaces in Southern Tunisia

In an area in southern Tunisia diurnal trends of bare soil surfaces have been investigated. The study area comprises two main parts: the footslopes and the playas.

The diurnal variation of the bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) in nadir direction on the footslopes is dominated by the effect of roughness. Maximum BRF is found with small solar zenith angles due to decrease in shadow related to surface roughness. For Landsat overpass it implies that the normal ground reflectance for a bare surface on the footslopes at identical surface conditions is up to 10% lower in December (solar zenith angle 63 degrees) than in June (28 degrees). Band ratios on the footslopes hardly change with variation of zenith angle.

The diurnal variation in the playas is dominated by moisture. Asymmetric daily curves, with the lowest reflectance in the morning have been found. Four phenomena are reported which can be held responsible for this effect. This daily effect of moisture is weather dependent and may obscure long time changes of TM signal. In band ratios even with TM band 7 the diurnal moisture change can hardly be detected.     

航空遥感载荷验证靶标设计与光学特性测量

从航空遥感载荷综合验证场的功能需求出发,于2008 年—2009 年设计并研制了一套用于光学遥感载荷几何性能评价、辐射定标、光谱定标的人工靶标,包括三线阵靶标、扇形靶标、辐射特性靶标、MTF靶标、光谱性能评价靶标5类.该套靶标采用可重复使用、可清洗、可拼接的材料,适用于航空遥感高分辨率、灵活机动的特点.为了检验靶标的光学特性能否满足定标要求,2010 年11 月对辐射特性靶标、MTF靶标和光谱特性评价靶标进行了飞行同步光谱测量和BRF测量.野外实验结果表明,该套靶标的光谱平坦性、朗伯性、对比度均符合定标场的要求,可以用于航空传感器定标实验与相关应用.     

Lithology Discrimination in Foreland Basin with Landsat TM

The Kahramanmaraş Foreland Basin (KFB) margins are formed by Paleozoic-Mesozoic limestone, metamorphic and ophiolite. This basin contains sandstone and claystone alternations with lesser amounts of reefal limestone, channelized conglomerates, debrites and slump deposits. An irregular topography and absence of path obscured the accurate and complete mapping of the basin. Thus, Landsat TM images were used. The RGB 751 false colour composites were chosen due to abundant claystone and limestone content of the KFB. The RGB PCA 145 was preferred due to high loading of TM bands 5 (clay and iron oxide mineral), 7 (carbonate mineral), 3 and 1 (albedo and topography). The RGB 5/7-5/1-4 (light green dots in 5/7 indicate enhanced claystone area and OH^- bearing alteration zone; red dots in 5/1 indicate enhanced iron oxide bearing alteration zone; fourth band for water bearing minerals) shows the transportation way of sediments. The OH^- and iron oxide bearing alteration zones are found on older source rocks and younger deposition area. Main lithological boundary, geometry and provenance properties of the KFB were satisfactorily obtained from the Landsat TM images. However, low spatial resolution (30 m) prevents detail facies discrimination that still requires hard field working and/or detailed satellite images.     

The ADS40 Vaihingen/Enz geometric performance test

This paper presents the main results of a comprehensive ADS40 performance analysis conducted at the Vaihingen/Enz test field. As such it represents one example of an independent in-flight performance study for one of the new and commercially operational digital airborne camera systems. Based on a large number of well coordinated and defined object points, which served as independent check points, the absolute geometric accuracy of the ADS40 from true operational data has been verified. Empirical analysis of data from flying heights ranging from 1500 m to 4000 m proved the ADS40 geometric accuracy to be in the range of 1–2 μm at image scale for horizontal coordinates and 0.03–0.05‰ of the flying height for vertical components. This is fully within specification for airborne imaging.     

Harmonic analysis of the Earth's gravitational field by means of semi-continuous ephemerides of a low Earth orbiting GPS-tracked satellite. Case study: CHAMP

An algorithm for the determination of the spherical harmonic coefficients of the terrestrial gravitational field representation from the analysis of a kinematic orbit solution of a low earth orbiting GPS-tracked satellite is presented and examined. A gain in accuracy is expected since the kinematic orbit of a LEO satellite can nowadays be determined with very high precision, in the range of a few centimeters. In particular, advantage is taken of Newton's Law of Motion, which balances the acceleration vector with respect to an inertial frame of reference (IRF) and the gradient of the gravitational potential. By means of triple differences, and in particular higher-order differences (seven-point scheme, nine-point scheme), based upon Newton's interpolation formula, the local acceleration vector is estimated from relative GPS position time series. The gradient of the gravitational potential is conventionally given in a body-fixed frame of reference (BRF) where it is nearly time independent or stationary. Accordingly, the gradient of the gravitational potential has to be transformed from spherical BRF to Cartesian IRF. Such a transformation is possible by differentiating the gravitational potential, given as a spherical harmonics series expansion, with respect to Cartesian coordinates by means of the chain rule, and expressing zero- and first-order Ferrer's associated Legendre functions in terms of Cartesian coordinates. Subsequently, the BRF Cartesian coordinates are transformed into IRF Cartesian coordinates by means of the polar motion matrix, the precession–nutation matrices and the Greenwich sidereal time angle (GAST). In such a way a spherical harmonic representation of the terrestrial gravitational field intensity with respect to an IRF is achieved. Numerical tests of a resulting Gauss–Markov model document not only the quality and the high resolution of such a space gravity spectroscopy, but also the problems resulting from noise amplification in the acceleration determination process.     

Calibration facility for airborne imaging spectrometers

A new facility designed to perform calibration measurements of airborne imaging spectrometers was established at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen. This Calibration Home Base (CHB) is optimized to characterize radiometrically, spectrally, and geometrically the APEX (Airborne Prism Experiment) imaging spectrometer, which is currently being developed under the authority of the European Space Agency (ESA). It however can be used for other optical sensors as well. Computer control of major laboratory equipment allows automation of time consuming measurements. In APEX configuration (wavelength range: 380 to 2500 nm, instantaneous field of view: 0.48 mrad, field of view: ±14) spectral measurements can be performed to a wavelength uncertainty of ±0.15 nm, geometric measurements at increments of 0.0017 mrad across track and 0.0076 mrad along track, and radiometric measurements to an uncertainty of ±3% relative to national standard. The CHB can be adapted to similar sensors (including those with thermal infrared detectors) by exchanging the monochromator’s lamp, the gratings and the filters, and by adjusting the distance between the sensor and folding mirror.     

两种BRDF室外测量方法的RGM模拟对比与误差分析

目标物的反射特性,无论是在遥感模型还是在遥感反演中都扮演着重要的角色,因此选用正确的自然条件下目标物反射特性的测量方法是遥感定量分析的基础.长期以来在自然条件下(即太阳直射光和天空漫射光同时存在)测量目标物的反射特性时,可以获得BRF(Bidirectional Reflectance Factor)作为目标反射特性的描述,但这样获得的BRF与辐射环境有关.为了消除辐射环境的影响,获得真正能够反映目标物的反射特性的BRDF(Bidirectional Reflectance.Distribution Function),前人提出了一些野外测量的方法.本文在此基础上,利用计算机模拟的辐射度(Radiosity)模型在真实场景基础上模拟BRF值,分析测量方法中存在的系统误差受观测条件影响的大小,比较了测量方法的优劣,提出了野外测量时选择测量方法的基本原则.     

Hydromorphogeology and Remote Sensing applications for groundwater exploration in agnigundala mineralised belt, Andhra Pradesh, India

Hydromorphogeological studies have been carried out around Agnigundala mineralised belt (longitude 70°.39′ - 16°.51′ and latitude 16°.2′ - 16°.15′) using remote sensing IRS-IB and SPOT data for ground water exploration. Based on erosional and depositional characters of various geomorphic units like Hills (Structural and denudational) Pediment, Buried pediment, plains and valley fills have been identified in various lithologies like granite, granite gneiss, biotite schist, phyllite,. quartzite and dolomite. The acclamations of individual geomorphic units through visual interpretation are verified from field data. The groundwater potentials of the individual geomorphologic units have been evaluated to obtain a complete hvdrogcological picture of the area. The field data have further helped in quanlifying various geomorphological units with reference to their potential for ground water occurrence.     

Geometric test field calibration of digital photogrammetric sensors

Test field system calibration will be a fundamental part of the future photogrammetric production line. Accurate calibration and performance evaluations are necessary for fully assessing the stability and accuracy of digital sensing techniques. In this paper, a method of comprehensive geometric calibration in a test field has been developed and empirically tested using eight image blocks collected with three UltraCamD digital large format photogrammetric cameras. Permanent photogrammetric test fields form the basis of the method. Important components of the method are determination of system parameters, evaluation of systematic errors, and assessment of geometric accuracy. The results showed that UltraCamD images contained systematic deformations that could not be modeled with single lens additional parameter models. Good point determination accuracy was obtained despite the systematic errors; the typical accuracy was 2–3 μm in image space in the horizontal coordinates and 0.05–0.09‰ of the object distance in height. One of the cameras had significantly poorer performance. In the worst cases, the horizontal accuracy was 5 μm in image space and the height accuracy was 0.18‰ of the object distance. The analog cameras gave better results than the UltraCamD, but the development of appropriate mathematical models for UltraCamD as well as improvements in digital sensors may change the situation in the near future.     

叶片非朗伯特性影响冠层辐射分布的辐射度模型模拟与分析

在大量的植被冠层遥感模型中,辐射度模型作为一种计算机模拟模型具有很多优点,它对理解植被—辐射相互作用过程和研究植被冠层辐射机理具有重要的理论价值。传统的辐射度模型假设冠层内叶片为朗伯体。但随着对叶片特性的深入研究发现,叶片的反射特性不能单纯的看成是理想漫反射过程。为了消除传统辐射度模型的朗伯假设,完善辐射度模型,本文利用Phong光照模型模拟叶片表面非朗伯(镜面反射)部分的分布特性,在基于真实结构冠层场景的辐射度模型(RGM)的基础上,增加了叶片镜面反射分量的计算。文中以玉米冠层为例,比较并分析了叶片的镜面反射分量对冠层辐射分布的影响。最后,从辐射度模型原理出发,进一步推导得出了计算冠层镜面反射分量的辐射度公式,从理论上证明了在可见光—近红外区的冠层镜面反射分量与波长无关。本文使用的方法具有简单、易于实现的特点。经过扩展后的辐射度模型既保留了传统辐射度模型的优点,又增加了该模型的功能和模拟范围。     

MODIS二向反射模型方差函数的研究与应用

地表二向性反射分布函数(BRDF)是表征地物反射随太阳和观测方向变化的物理量。在统计意义上,BRDF表示均值统计量,BRVF(Bidirectional Reflectance Variance Function)表示方差统计量,它们对研究地表各向异性反射特征有着重要意义。本文首先采用误差传播理论,推导出基于MODIS BRDF模型的BRVF表达形式。研究结果表明,BRVF的空间分布模式主要由几何光学核Kgeo和体散射核Kvol的一次项和二次项权重和决定。然后利用EOS地面验证核心站点(EOS Land Validation Core Sites)的MODIS BRDF产品,对BRVF空间分布模式随地表类型、光谱波段和观测角度范围进行验证。验证结果表明,基于MODIS BRDF产品的验证与理论推导有较好的一致性。BRVF空间分布模式和地表类型有关,通常在热点处有一个峰值。在大观测天顶角(60°)下,BRVF随着角度的增大而增大。BRVF在近红外波段整体上大于红波段,表明其波段依赖性。最后,将上述理论成果初步应用于69组地表测量数据的模拟中。模拟结果表明,当大角度缺少观测数据时,模型外延所引起的方向反射方差显著增大,对地表反照率的反演精度和不确定性有较大影响。其中,红波段的白天空反照率的相对误差最大可达38.26%。本研究对利用小角度观测数据进行地表反照率反演的不确定性分析有指导意义;对大角度观测数据缺失情况下,先验知识在地表反照率的反演应用可提供有意义的理论支撑。     

Assessment of Dem Quality for Characterizing Surface Roughness Using Close Range Digital Photogrammetry

This paper presents a procedure for assessing the quality of a digital elevation model (DEM) which has been applied to the output of a normalized cross correlation based stereomatching algorithm. Using semimetric photography of natural gravel river bed surfaces acquired in the field, digital photogrammetry was used to extract DEMs automatically for use in characterizing surface roughness properties. The procedure for assessing DEM quality involves examination of (i) ortho-images, to provide a qualitative check on stereomatching performance; (ii) DEM collection statistics which quantify the percentage of correctly matched pixels as a function of those interpolated; and (iii) height differences between check points, measured using independent field survey, and corresponding DEM points. The concepts of precision, accuracy and reliability are defined in the context of DEM quality assessment and methods are outlined which can be used to assess these variables. The assessment is conducted for two adjacent stereopairs with similar characteristics, considering the effects of both DEM collection parameters and different lens models upon DEM quality. Results show that digital photogrammetry, in conjunction with independent field survey, can be used successfully for extracting high resolution, small scale DEMs from natural gravel surfaces. Components (i) and (ii) of the quality assessment suggest the need to optimize DEM collection parameters, although the effects of not using a properly specified lens model were minimal at this scale. Method (iii) showed that increasing stereomatching success does not necessarily lead to more accurately estimated DEM points. However, the use of method (iii) remained difficult because of the scale of the photogrammetric application being used; check point positioning within the photogrammetric co-ordinate system was only possible to ±10 mm which, for a gravel bed surface, was associated with elevation variance of a similar, sometimes greater, magnitude. The next stage of this research will require the use of higher quality check data, possibly from laser profiling.     

偏振反射信息在植被遥感双向反射研究中的作用

本文基于菲涅尔反射公式,结合现有的偏振反射模型对单叶与植被多角度偏振测量结果与理论结合进行分析;通过研究发现,偏振反射在前向散射方向可以通过菲涅尔反射公式进行解释,但是,在后向散射方向则需要考虑其他物理机理。此外,传感器获取的植被偏振信息既可以作为一种"噪声"来剔除,剔除后在可见光波段将相对误差从原来的30%降低到20%以内,又可以作为额外有效的信息源表征植被的结构特征:通过模型参数的大小判断冠层形态的平整程度。本文可以作为植被偏振探测的系统化方法,并且给出植被固有的偏振反射效应规律,即植被越平展光滑,产生的偏振信息越多;同时也将偏振光遥感在植被监测中的有效性凸显出来,即偏振信息的剥离有助于提升双向反射模型的计算精度。     

农作物冠层BRF及波谱的计算机模拟及其验证

计算机模拟模型是以植被真实三维结构场景为基础,模拟植被冠层的辐射特性。本文以冬小麦为例,利用辐射度方法模拟了冬小麦在不同LAI下的冠层二向反射因子（BRF）及其波谱特征;为了验证并评价模拟数据的质量,将模拟冠层BRF数据与实测数据进行了比较,并将计算机模拟波谱数据与Prosail模型模拟波谱及实测波谱进行了比较。通过研究可以得到以下结论：（1）LAI是植被群体重要的结构参数,对于同一品种的植被可以用LAI来描述植被的生长进程;（2）基于计算机模拟的冠层BRF数据具有一定的可靠性,能够满足实际研究的需要,因此可以把计算机模拟冠层BRF数据作为实测数据用于研究,以弥补因各种条件限制无法得到实测数据的缺憾。