Rare earth element distributions in some Precambrian rocks and their phyllosilicates,Numedal, Norway

Mass spectrometric analyses for rare earth elements (REE) have been carried out on some Precambrian mica schists, gneisses and granites from the Precambrian Numedal area, Norway and on their phyllosilicates. The rocks, which are metamorphosed in the upper greenschist to amphibolite facies, were originally partly sedimentary, partly magmatic.The total REE contents for rocks varies from 145 to 761 ppm. An average of 16 phyllosilicate samples gave 417 ppm REE (max. of 1809 ppm, min. of ca. 50 ppm). Coexisting light and dark phyllosilicates have similar abundances of REE. For the micas of high REE content most of the REE was extractable by rinsing with EDTA. The data thus support the possibility of an extensive adsorption of REE ions on micaceous minerals. The REE distribution patterns do not provide a clear distinction between the sedimentary and magmatic origin for the rocks examined.     

Rare-earths in size fractions and sedimentary rocks of Pennsylvanian-Permian age from the mid-continent of the U.S.A.

The REE (rare-earth) contents of sixty-three <2 μ fractions of Pennsylvanian and Permian platform sediment from the mid-continent of the U.S.A. vary considerably (ΣREE = 46–439 ppm;La/ Lu = 5.2–15.7; correlation coefficient of REE with La/Lu = 0.89), but the Eu/Sm ratios are nearly constant even in reducing environments that concentrate U (0.16–0.22). There is no correlation of REE content to clay mineralogy.Lower Permian <2 μ fractions from continental to nearshore marine sediment in Oklahoma have higher REE content (244–261 ppm) than marine facies in Kansas (46–140ppm), but <2μ Upper Permian fractions in an evaporite basin have constant but high REE content (288–281 ppm; one = 153—ppm). All Pennsylvanian <2 μ fractions from Oklahoma have high REE content (209–439 ppm), and fractions from Kansas cyclothems have variable REE content (86–438 ppm). REE content in the <2 μ fractions is inherited from the provenance, but is modified by ion exchange during weathering, transportation, or deposition. Exchangable REE tend to be concentrated in clay minerals in basic environments, but removed in acid environments.Sand and gravel-size fractions consist mostly of quartz or chert so their REE content is low (7.9–40.6 ppm) although heavy minerals may contribute a large fraction of the REE content. Unexpectedly, silt-size fractions have REE contents (74–355 ppm) that are usually lower but similar to their <2 μ fractions, and the REE contents do not correlate to clay mineral/quartz ratios. The interpretation of REE content in sedimentary rocks needs to be done cautiously due to the above factors.     

The Speeton Clay of North Yorkshire, England: An investigation of its geotechnical properties

The Lower Cretaceous in North Yorkshire is represented by a marine succession termed the Speeton Clay. The principal minerals in these clays consist of quartz, mica and clay minerals, although pyrite, glauconite and siderite are notable in some beds. The proportions of clay minerals change within the Speeton Clay and generally illite becomes more important in the younger horizons.

The Speeton Clay is a silty clay which generally has a high plasticity, the latter being influenced by the proportion of clay fraction present. All the clays tested were inactive although they would appear to have a potential for expansion. Neither the plasticity nor the moisture content were affected by depth.

In terms of its undrained shear strength, most of the Speeton Clay could be regarded as a stiff clay. It was also insensitive with generally a low slake-durability index. Its coefficients of volume compressibility were characteristic of overconsolidated and heavily overconsolidated days.     

Shear resistance of fissured Neogene clays

Two types of fissured Neogene clays (SM and WB) were tested in the laboratory using undisturbed and reconstituted specimens. Although of similar age, the clays differ in their geological history: SM clays were deposited in a marine environment, WB are lacustrine clays with a complex tectonic history.

The index properties of both clays are similar and, accordingly, their strength parameters are mutually close. Test results of the more compact and less wet clay (WB) are affected by the sampling and trimming procedures, especially for 38 mm diameter specimens.

Although the behaviour is similar, the origin of fissures is different. For the SM clays, weathering is the main cause and fissuring reaches a depth of about 20 m. WB clays are dissected by macro- and microfissures originating as the result of tectonic processes and volumetric changes (effect of the coal formation underneath the investigated massif).

Cementation of some samples was found and the transition from clays through cemented clays to claystones (soft rocks) is speculated.     

江西龙南花岗岩稀土风化壳中粘土矿物的研究

本区燕山早期花岗岩发育的风化壳中的粘土矿物以高岭石和埃洛石(7Å)为主;蒙脱石、三水铝石及其它为新查明矿物。据粘土矿物组合特征,自风化剖面深部到地表分为三个带:含蒙脱石带,高岭石和埃洛石(7Å)带,含三水铝石带。本文探讨了矿物在风化过程中的生成演化顺序,并进行了热力学的解释。据各带粘土物质的阳离子交换量与稀土含量变化的不一致关系认为,稀土在C带中的富集是化学风化的结果,与粘土矿物组合无关。     

Quick-clay microstructure

The article deals with a quick clay which was originally deposited in sea water. By leaching in situ the salt content has been reduced to a very small value.

By using a special technique for step-wise replacement of pore water with acrylate plastic, 500Aothick sections were cut with a precision microtome. The sections were photographed in an electron microscope and the micrographs obtained could be used for a study of the clay microstructure.

The microstructure is characterized by a linkage of groups or chains of small particles in and between denser flocs or aggregates or between bigger particles. There is no preferential orientation either of small or of bigger particles.

A preliminary study of the quick clay and of unleached parts of the same clay stratum has not revealed any microstructural differences.

The extreme thinness of the clay sections means that the micrographs reveal pores larger than about 500Ao. Thus the micrographs give a fairly complete picture of the size and shape variation of the micropores in the clay. By measuring the maximum dimension of all pores which could be identified and by using suitable methods for statistical condensation, representative values of mean pore size and two-dimensional “porosity” were obtained. These characteristics are discussed in relation to the permeability and strength properties of the quick clay and of some fresh- and brackish-water deposited clays which have been investigated previously.

Finally, on the basis of the micrographs a hypothesis is made concerning the rate of settlement.     

Petrogenesis of Al–silicate-bearing trondhjemitic migmatites from NE Sardinia, Italy

The migmatites from Punta Sirenella (NE Sardinia) are layered rocks containing 3–5 vol.% of centimeter-sized stromatic leucosomes which are mainly trondhjemitic and only rarely granitic in composition. They underwent three deformation phases, from D₁ to D₃. The D₁ deformation shows a top to the NW shear component followed by a top to the NE/SE component along the XZ plane of the S₂ schistosity. Migmatization started early, during the compressional and crustal thickening stage of Variscan orogeny and was still in progress during the following extensional stage of unroofing and exhumation.

The trondhjemitic leucosomes, mainly consisting of quartz, plagioclase, biotite ± garnet ± kyanite ± fibrolite, retrograde muscovite and rare K-feldspar, are locally bordered by millimeter-sized biotite-rich melanosomes. The rare granitic leucosomes differ from trondhjemitic ones only in the increase in modal content of K-feldspar, up to 25%. Partial melting started in the kyanite field at about 700–720 °C and 0.8–0.9 GPa, and was followed by re-equilibration at 650–670 °C and 0.4–0.6 GPa, producing fibrolite–biotite intergrowth and coarse-grained muscovite.

The leucosomes have higher SiO₂, CaO, Na₂O, Sr and lower Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, MgO, TiO₂, K₂O, P₂O₅, Rb, Ba, Cr, V, Zr, Nb, Zn and REE content with respect to proximal hosts and pelitic metagreywackes. Sporadic anomalous high content of calcium and ferromagnesian elements in some leucosomes is due to entrainment of significant amounts of restitic plagioclase, biotite and accessory phases. The rare granitic leucosomes reveal peritectic K-feldspar produced by muscovite-dehydration melting. Most leucosomes show low REE content, moderately fractionated REE patterns and marked positive Eu anomaly. Proximal hosts and pelitic metagraywackes are characterized by higher REE content, more fractionated REE patterns and slightly negative Eu anomaly.

The trondhjemitic leucosomes were generated by H₂O-fluxed melting at 700 °C of a greywacke to pelitic–greywacke metasedimentary source-rock. The disequilibrium melting process is the most reliable melting model for Punta Sirenella leucosomes.     

Geotechnical characteristics of some clays from south—western Nigeria: implications for industrial utilization

Clays in adequate quantity and of quality for industrial use occur in the Ifon area of Ondo State, Nigeria, in the form of alluvial deposits at Sobe, as sedimentary deposits at Non and Arimogija and as residual clays at Omialafara.

The alluvial clays from Sobe and the sedimentary clays from Ifon are highly plastic while the sedimentary clays from Arimogija are moderately plastic and the Omialafara residual clays only slightly plastic. The clays in general are kaolinitic in composition with minor amounts of illite.

The unconfined compressive strength characteristics of fired pellets of these various clays indicate that the reddish to greyish-brown alluvial clays at Sobe tend to have higher strength values than the dark grey clays of Arimogija. Porosity, firing shrinkage, clay mineralogy and colour after firing all indicate that the clays are very suitable for the manufacture of ceramic wares.     

Isotopic exchange of Zn with stable Zn adsorbed on reference clay minerals

For reference clays of low organic content, Zn adsorbed on the clay minerals is in kinetic equilibrium with ⁶⁵Zn in solution. Thus the specific activity approach applied to the transport of ⁶⁵Zn(II) at the water-reference clay interface is intrinsically valid.     

Submicroscopic accessory minerals overprinting clay mineral REE patterns (celadonite–glauconite group examples)

Samples of glauconite, representing different stages of glauconitisation, as well as different formation environments, were analysed for rare earth elements (REE) and other trace elements using a combination of bulk sample and spatially-resolved in situ techniques. The results indicate that the high-sensitivity, spatially-resolved technique of laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) produces values up to two orders of magnitude lower than the bulk sample analyses. This suggests that submicroscopic rare earth element-bearing phases are distributed within the glauconite aggregates comprising the bulk samples. Analytical scanning electron microscopy (ASEM) revealed the presence of micrometre-sized grains of apatite and pore filling precipitates of an unidentified (REE, Ca)-phosphate (approximate composition Ca_0.3–0.4(Ce_0.4La_0.1–0.2Nd_0.1)PO₄) in some glauconite grains.The inherent REE concentrations of the glauconite aggregates (i.e., glauconite crystallites without accidental mechanical inclusions or authigenic, not layer silicate mineral precipitates) was found to be relatively low (e.g., typically less than 100 ppm), and this value decreased with increasing glauconitisation (smectite–mica transformation through a series of recrystallisation processes). These results suggest that the REEs substitute for Ca in the interlayer space of the layer silicate structure and, therefore, the REE content decreases as Ca is progressively removed from the interlayer (smectite–mica transition).LA-ICP-MS, when combined with electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) or ASEM, offers an opportunity to exclude submicroscopic accessory minerals from glauconite trace element analyses, and so produces reliable trace element data for the respective minerals which host those elements.These results illustrate that accessory minerals are difficult to eliminate from clay samples, and that care needs to be taken in the interpretation of clay mineral REE distributions, irrespective of the aggregation state of the studied clay (i.e., whether finely dispersed within the sedimentary rock, or forming millimetre-sized aggregates). Model calculations showed that authigenic apatite associated with the studied green marine clays tends to have higher REE content than “bioapatites”, the total REE content being above 10 000 ppm.     

Process of slip-surface development and formation of slip-surface clay in landslides in Tertiary volcanic rocks, Japan

Once landslide movement has been initiated, the sliding mass tends to move toward a more stable position. However, landslides that have occurred in some Tertiary volcanic rocks in Japan show recurrent movement. A possible reason for this behavior is that the mineral composition and properties of slip-surface materials results in better ‘lubrication’ along the slip surface as movement continues. In order to determine the causes, five landslides in Japanese Tertiary volcanics with different movement histories were studied. Based on geological investigation, the results presented in this paper were obtained by studying the development process and formation of slip surfaces and clays in landslides in these volcanics.

For rocks of similar types and mineralogies the clay content of slip-surface materials can be directly related to the displacement and history of slide movement. This study indicates that the type of slip surface ranges from: (1) striation type (showing only striations on bedrock without clay), to (2) brecciated type (clayey breccia), (3) mylonite type (clay with breccia), and to (4) clay type (clay without breccia). If the slip surface occurs in tuff or tuffaceous materials and is subjected to increasing slide movement, the smectite content in the slip-surface clay increases, while the silicate mineral content decreases. Furthermore, the smectite content is observed to increase within the same landslide from the head to the toe portion of the landslide (direction of groundwater flow). The groundwater along the slip surface (above the impervious zone) contains an increased concentration of Ca⁺⁺ ions. As the concentration of HCO₃⁻ ions exceeds 40 mg/l, an environment is created that promotes the formation of smectite. This process indicates that there is an active ion exchange within the groundwater near the slip surface that forms smectite. Thus, the formation of smectite in the slip surface requires the presence of tuff and a sufficient concentration of HCO₃⁻ ions in the groundwater.

The study results presented here indicate that frictional resistance decreases as clay content increases. The reason for repeated movement of Japanese landslides in Tertiary tuffs or tuffaceous rocks at or in the immediate vicinity of the slip surface is attributed to: (1) an increase in clay materials along the slip surface as the slide movement is repeated and (2) the presence of groundwater that promotes the formation of smectite. As is commonly known, smectite is one of the clay minerals that has lowest frictional resistance.     

Mineralogical and chemical changes of soil and stream sediment formed by intense weathering of the Danburg granite, Georgia, U.S.A.

A series of soil and stream sediments developed during intense weathering on the metaluminous Danburg granite, northeastern Georgia, U.S.A., have been analyzed mineralogically and chemically. The concentrations of Ba, Na, Rb and Cs in the silt and coarser fractions are controlled mainly by feldspars and biotite. Hf is controlled by zircon, and the REE (rare-earth elements) and Th are largely controlled by sphene. Variations in feldspar, sphene and zircon may produce small variations in Eu/Sm and La/Lu ratios. Ferromagnesian minerals control Ta, Fe, Co, Sc and Cr concentrations.

The mineralogical and chemical composition of the Danburg granite is more closely reflected in the silt than in the sand or gravel fractions of stream sediments. In the silt, the contents of Rb, REE, Th, Ta, Fe, Co and Sc and the ratios of La/Sc, Th/Sc, La/Co, Th/Co, Eu/Sm and La/Lu are similar to those in the unweathered granite. In contrast, these element contents or ratios in the sands and gravels are 0.05−3× the concentration in the unweathered granite. Ta and Ba contents are an exception to the above. The Ta and Ba contents of the sands and gravels are similar to those of the granite.

In the kaolinite-halloysite clays, the content of Na is depleted relative to the source. Rb, Cs, Ba, Hf and Ta are depleted or enriched in the clays relative to the source, while the REE, Th, Fe, Co, Sc and Cr are enriched. The Eu/Sm (Eu anomaly size) and La/Lu ratios, and the REE patterns of the clays are similar to those of the source.

Thus, the mineralogy and element contents of a siltstone developed from metaluminous, granitic sources during intense weathering would be expected to be more similar to the source rock than the sandstones and conglomerates. Claystones should contain similar REE patterns and Eu/Sm ratios as the source rock, but such fine-grained sediments might represent much larger areas of source rocks than the more locally derived sandstones or conglomerates.     

Paragenesis of “box-work geodes”, Tampa Bay, Florida

An unusual suite of silicified rocks was excavated during a recent harbour-deepening project in Tampa Bay, Florida. These rocks, which we have termed “box-work geodes”, are composed of convoluted, intersecting silica walls enclosing cavities which are either voids or filled with relatively pure monoclinic palygorskite. The “box-work geodes” are interpreted as having formed in shallow lagoonal environments, similar to the Coorong Lagoon of South Australia. Synaeresis of syngenetic palygorskite was followed by opal deposition and case hardening of the material. Subsequent chemical deposition of chalcedony, megacrystalline quartz, barite, and calcite on the void facing walls indicates an open chemical system.

The existence of opal saturated lagoons, as inferred from the “box-work geodes”, suggests that much of the replacement chert, porcelanite, and silicified fossils in the Tertiary deposits of peninsular Florida formed in the shallow subsurface. Subsequent weathering of carbonates and clays not encapsulated in the box works has resulted in formation of a green montmorillonite residual clay bed.     

Rare earth distributions in clay minerals and in the clay-sized fraction of the Lower Permian Havensville and Eskridge shales of Kansas and Oklahoma

The REE (rare earth element) content of a wide variety of clay mineral groups have been analyzed using radiochemical neutron activation and have been found to be quite variable in absolute REE content (range of ∑REE = 5.4–1732) and less variable in relative REE content (range of chondritenormalized La/Lu = 0.9–16.5). The variable REE content of the clay mineral groups is probably determined by the REE content of the source rock from which the clay mineral was derived and not from the separate minerals in the rock.The clay-sized fractions of the Havensville and Eskridge shales of Kansas and Oklahoma have similar relative REE distributions and identical negative Eu anomaly size as the composite of NAS (N. American shales), but an absolute REE content (range of ∑REE = 46–348) that may differ significantly from the composite of NAS. The clay-sized fraction of samples from any given outcrop did not vary much in absolute or relative REE content, but samples from northern Oklahoma, probably composed of continental to near-shore marine sediments, have higher absolute REE contents and higher La/Lu ratios than samples of marine deposits in Kansas (e.g. mean ∑REE in Oklahoma = 248; mean ∑REE in Kansas = 69–116). The differencess in the REE content between samples in Oklahoma and Kansas may be caused by chemical weathering processes in the source area, exchange reactions in the environment of deposition, or diagenesis and do not appear to be a result of the different clay minerals.Most samples have Eu anomalies relative to chondrites (range of Eu/Sm ratios of samples = 0.035–1.17; chondrites = 0.35). Some montmorillonites and kaolinites are anomalous in Eu relative to the NAS (range of Eu/Sm ratios of samples = 0.056–0.21; NAS = 0.22). These anomalies may be inherited from source rocks with Eu anomalies originally produced by igneous processes, or they may be produced by chemical weathering processes in the source area.     

Stabilization of swelling clays by Mg(OH)2. Changes in clay properties after addition of Mg-hydroxide

Stabilization of the swelling clay structure is attempted by intercalation of Mg(OH)₂ and the development of a brucite interlayer between the clay layers. The properties of the product obtained by applying the technique, formulated as described in a previous work, are considered here. The materials used were Wyoming bentonite (USA), Fuller's Earth (UK), kaolinite, illite, lignite, and silica gels. The Mg(OH)₂-clay products were examined by the methylene blue dye test, X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and derivative thermogravimetry analysis (DTGA). From the results obtained it is concluded that: the Mg-hydroxide is adsorbed by swelling clays both on their external and internal surface, whereas it is adsorbed on the external surface by non-swelling clays. The internally adsorbed phase of Mg-hydroxide forms an ill-defined interlayer of brucite, retarding swelling, whereas the external phase covers the particles modifying drastically their surface properties, like the adsorption of the MB dye. The material produced after precipitation of Mg-hydroxide on swelling clays (smectites) did not re-expand on wetting or after glycolation. The adsorption of MB dye was also reduced by some 80–90%, due to coating effect, preventing the measurements of the external surface area of the clay by polar molecules. The principal forces involved in the process are believed to be physical adsorption on the external surface, along with chemisorption and some chemical bonding, mostly in the internal surface. Cementation due to crystallization and, in the long term, some pozzolanic reactions take also place. Internal adsorption of the Mg-hydroxide is postulated to be in the form of positively charged mono- and/or small polymers and it is, chiefly, diffusion controlled. Since Mg-hydroxide is internally adsorbed by swelling clays, whereas Ca-hydroxide(lime) is not, and the (Mg, Ca)-clay aggregates are more stable than the Ca-clay or the Mg-one, the combination of the two hydroxides could give better results in soil stabilization than each hydroxide alone.     

Rare earth element studies of surficial sediments from the southwestern Carlsberg Ridge,Indian Ocean

The rare earth element (REE) contents of sixteen surficial calcareous sediments from the southwestern Carlsberg Ridge, Indian Ocean, have been determined. The total REE vary from 35 ppm to 126 ppm and are inversely related to the calcium carbonate content. REEs show a strong positive correlation with Al + Fe + K + Mg + Na (r ²= 0.98) and Mn + Fe + Cu + Ni (r ²= 0.86) suggesting that the REE is associated with a combined phase of clays (mainly illite) and Mn-Fe oxyhydroxides. The aeolian input into these sediments is suggested from the weak positive Eu/Eu* anomaly. Shale-normalized (NASC) pattern along with La_(n)/Yb_(n) ratio suggest enrichment of heavy REE (HREE) relative to the light REE (LREE) with a negative Ce/Ce* anomaly implying retention of a bottom water REE pattern. An erratum to this article is available at .     

Petrography and geochemical characteristics of the sediments of the small River Hemavati, Southern India: Implications for provenance and weathering processes

Small rivers (≤ 100 km length) are likely to drain fewer rock types. Therefore, their solutes and sediments are good indicators of weathering environments typical of their basins and help constraining the nature of their source rocks. To understand this, the texture, mineralogy, major and trace element compositions of the sediments deposited by the River Hemavati, a northern upland tributary of the Cauvery River in southern India, are analyzed and discussed.

The Hemavati sediments are overall of fine sand size (mean 2–3), and have high concentrations of FeO (≤ 7 wt.%), TiO₂ (≤ 1.2 wt.%), Cr (≤ 350 ppm) and Ni (≤ 125 ppm). Major and trace element distribution call for a binary source for the sediments, and particularly point to contrasting climatic conditions of their provenances. The source areas in the upstream and downstream parts are exposed to sub-humid high relief and sub-arid low relief conditions, respectively, with distinct weathering characteristics. The CIA values (85–48) decrease from near the source to downstream, suggesting that the downstream rain-shadow part of the catchment suffered only minor chemical weathering.

On the other hand, the REE distribution in the Hemavati sediments indicates contrasting lithologies in their provenance, and is not controlled by chemical weathering. On the basis of REE patterns, the sediments are divided into two compositional groups. The Type 1 sediments have a REE chemistry similar to the upper continental crust, and have been derived from the > 3.2 Ga composite peninsular gneisses occurring in the low-lying, semi-arid Mysore Plateau. The Type 2 sediments, however, have dominantly intermediate to mafic granulite contributions from the tectonically uplifted Western Ghats, weathered under sub-humid conditions. High concentrations of FeO, TiO₂, Cr and Ni in the sediments suggest mafic-dominated source lithologies in the upper catchment, a feature also confirmed by field observations and petrographic study.     

中国南方二叠-三叠系界线及其附近粘土层稀土元素地球化学研究

本文对广泛发育于中国南方,连续的二叠-三叠系海相界线及其附近粘土层(蒙脱石—伊利石粘土岩)进行了稀土元素地豫化学的研究。查明了REE分布特征;REE沿粘土层垂向上的变化,比较了界线粘土与非界线粘土在REE分布上的差异。讨论了界线粘土的成因,根据稀土模式所作的综合分析,提出了由中酸性山火山岩和代表冲击溅射产物的上部地壳物质组合的混合新模式。     

珠江三角洲晚第四纪风化层稀土元素地球化学特征*

珠江三角洲地区上更新统与全新统之间广泛发育1层杂色黏土,其成因多认为主要是由上更新统沉积物在末次冰盛期暴露于地表风化而成。对取自珠江三角洲3条钻孔（PRD09、PRD16和PRD17）的岩心样品分析表明,受风化作用的影响,其稀土元素含量和分异特征发生了较明显的变化。杂色黏土层的稀土总量大大低于下伏沉积物,而在邻近风化层的下伏沉积物中稀土元素却表现为明显富集,尤其是重稀土元素的富集。风化作用强度较大的PRD09孔和PRD17孔下伏沉积物中的稀土富集程度高于风化作用强度相对较小的PRD16孔。珠江三角洲在末次冰盛期时普遍发育的酸性介质条件,促进了风化层的稀土元素发生溶解和迁移。在风化过程中,由于轻、重稀土元素具有不同的溶解迁移能力和吸附能力,导致杂色黏土层的REE指标值（LREE/HREE、(La/Gd)_N和(La/Yb)_N）高于下伏沉积物。风化过程对Ce、Eu异常有一定的影响,但不十分明显,杂色黏土层的Ce、Eu异常值仅略低于下伏沉积物。     

Rare earth element patterns and crustal evolution—I. Australian post-Archean sedimentary rocks

A suite of Australian shales, greywackes and subgreywackes ranging in age from Proterozoic to Triassic were analyzed for the rare earth elements (REE) in order to detect any secular changes in rare earth distribution. These post-Archean sediments show remarkably similar relative rare earth patterns. They are characterized by negative Eu anomalies of almost constant magnitude (average Eu/Eu* = 0.67 ± 0.05) relative to chondrites and nearly constant ratios of light to heavy rare earths (average ∑LREE/∑HREE = 9.7 ± 1.8).

The REE abundances are generally higher in the younger sediments which may suggest that the absolute abundances of the rare earths in clastic sediments have gradually increased with time. Since no secular change in relative rare earth distribution was detected in the post-Archean sediments, a uniform process of crustal growth and evolution seems to have operated over the past 1500 million years at least.

Australites show rare earth distributions very similar to that of the average clastic sediment. This suggests that the tektite parent material originated in the upper crust.