Benchmarking numerical models of brittle thrust wedges

We report quantitative results from three brittle thrust wedge experiments, comparing numerical results directly with each other and with corresponding analogue results. We first test whether the participating codes reproduce predictions from analytical critical taper theory. Eleven codes pass the stable wedge test, showing negligible internal deformation and maintaining the initial surface slope upon horizontal translation over a frictional interface. Eight codes participated in the unstable wedge test that examines the evolution of a wedge by thrust formation from a subcritical state to the critical taper geometry. The critical taper is recovered, but the models show two deformation modes characterised by either mainly forward dipping thrusts or a series of thrust pop-ups. We speculate that the two modes are caused by differences in effective basal boundary friction related to different algorithms for modelling boundary friction. The third experiment examines stacking of forward thrusts that are translated upward along a backward thrust. The results of the seven codes that run this experiment show variability in deformation style, number of thrusts, thrust dip angles and surface slope. Overall, our experiments show that numerical models run with different numerical techniques can successfully simulate laboratory brittle thrust wedge models at the cm-scale. In more detail, however, we find that it is challenging to reproduce sandbox-type setups numerically, because of frictional boundary conditions and velocity discontinuities. We recommend that future numerical-analogue comparisons use simple boundary conditions and that the numerical Earth Science community defines a plasticity test to resolve the variability in model shear zones.     

Interaction of surface erosion and sequential thrust progression: Implications on exhumation processes

This paper investigates the evolution of thrust wedges with concomitant surface erosion, and its bearing on the exhumation processes in orogenic belts. We performed sandbox experiments, simulating syn-orogenic erosion on forelandward sloping surfaces (∼4°). Experiments show that the erosion process has a significant control on the progression of frontal thrusts. In case of no-erosion condition, wedges with high basal friction develop frontal thrusts with strongly increasing spacing. In contrast, for the same basal friction the thrusts show uniform spacing as the wedge development involves concomitant surface erosion. On the other hand, the erosion promotes reactivation of hinterland thrusts in wedges with low basal friction. We show that erosion-assisted thrust reactivation is the principal mechanism for exhumation of deeper level materials in orogens. Efficiency of this mechanism is largely controlled by basal friction. The exhumation of deeper level materials is limited, and occurs within a narrow, sub-vertical zone in the extreme hinterland when the basal friction is high (μ_b = 0.46). In contrast, the process is quite effective in wedges with low basal friction (μ_b =0.36), resulting in exhumation along gently dipping foreland-vergent thrusts as well as along thrusts, subsequently rotated into steep attitude. The zone of exhumation also shifts in the foreland direction in the course of horizontal movement. Consequently, deeper level materials cover a large area of the elevated part of the wedge.     

10Be surface exposure dating reveals unexpected high deformation rates in the central Andean wedge interior

Understanding deformation associated with active thrust wedges is essential to evaluate seismic hazards. In this study, we investigate the spatial distribution, timing, and rates of deformation across the central Andean backarc of Argentina, where deformation and shortening have been assumed to occur within a narrow wedge‐front zone. The combined results of our geomorphic mapping, topographic surveying, and ¹⁰Be exposure dating demonstrate that fault activity related to the growth of the Andean orogenic wedge is not only limited to a narrow thrust front zone but also occurs in the Andean wedge interior. There, internal structures with deformation rates of ca. 1.3 mm/year have been active during the last ~140 ka. Widely distributed deformation implies that seismic hazards may have been underestimated in the internal part of the Andean orogen.     

Impact of surface processes on the growth of orogenic wedges: Insights from analog models and case studies

Interaction between surface processes and deep tectonic processes plays a key role in the structural evolution, kinematics and exhumation of rocks in orogenic wedges. The deformation patterns observed in analogue models applied to natural cases of present active or ancient mountain belts reflect several first order processes that result of these interactions. Internal strain partitioning due to mechanical behaviour of a thrust wedge has a strong impact on the vertical component of displacement of tectonic units that in return favour erosion in domains of important uplift. Such strain partitioning is first controlled by tectonic processes, but surface processes exert a strong feed back on wedge dynamics. Indeed, material transfer in thrust wedges not only depends on its internal dynamics, it is also influenced by climate controlled surface processes involving erosion and sedimentation. Effects of erosion are multiple: they allow long term localization of deformed domains, they favour important exhumation above areas of deep underplating and combined with sedimentation in the foreland they contribute to maintain the wedge in a critical state for long time periods. The simple models illustrate well how mountain belts structure, kinematics of tectonic units and exhumation are determined by these complex interactions.     

Local displacement rate cycles in the life of a fold-thrust belt

The evolution of minor structures during the growth of major folds and thrusts, in the Chartreuse district of the French Subalpine thrust belt, shows that each thrust evolved through a phase of distributed faulting, major thrust propagation and displacement, followed by distributed shear modification of the hanging-wall fold. Microstructural studies suggest that the distributed faulting phases, early and late in the history, were characterized by strain rates limited by diffusive mass transfer processes ( c . 10^-15-10^-16 s^-1). Faulting whose rate is limited by DMT is too slow on its own to accommodate the regional time-averaged shortening rates for the thrust belt as a whole, implying that the slow thrusts operated in tandem with those major, fast thrusts where deformation was primarily cataclastic. Consequently each thrust anticline experienced a displacement rate cycle and an array of thrust anticlines must amplify simultaneously. These interpretations raise important issues for the dynamics of fault populations, the evolution of thrust wedges and the history of fluid migration in thrust belts.     

Effect of Rheology and Thickness Variation of Basal Detachment on Fold-and-Thrust Belts: Numerical SimulationEI北大核心CSCD

Detachment is the prime factor affecting the fold-and-thrust belts. In order to investigate the effect of rheology and thickness variation of basal detachment on fold-and-thrust belts, numerical simulations are carried out by using two dimensional plane strain mechanical models with elastoplastic or viscoelastoplastic material behavior solved with the finite difference software FLAC. Universal mudstone detachment has frictional property. Such fold-and-thrust belts are simulated with elastoplastic constitutive model. In contrast, salt detachment has creep property, so viscoelastoplastic constitutive models are employed for these fold-and-thrust belts. The results show that rheology and thickness of basal detachment influence the fold-and-thrust belts greatly. When the detachment is mudstone, the typical structural style of imbricate fan will develop, also the propagating forward piggy-back thrust sequence; however, when the detachment is salt, structural style will show Jura-type consisted of a series of anticlines and synclines, and out-of-sequence thrusts will appear. Varieties of thickness of basal mudstone detachment will change eventual surface slope of the fold-and-thrust belts, but have little effect on the structural styles and thrust sequence. For salt detachment, the effect is significant, no matter where the thickest detachment distributes, most strongly deformation and the highest surface will be located there. Thickening of salt detachment combined with slight thinning of overburden strata from hinterland to foreland will result in uncommon structural style and thrust sequence: back thrusts and backward propagating. These differences are mainly due to the much smaller shear strength of salt than that of mudstone. © 2017, Science Press. All right reserved.     

盆山地壳横向变化对挤压构造变形的影响——来自砂箱模拟实验的启示

前陆克拉通与造山带增生楔在地壳结构、力学性质等方面有明显的差异。挤压作用使盆山地壳横向变化通过构造变形表现出来。本文设计了具有深浅两个滑脱层"克拉通"与不同能干性的"造山楔"接触砂箱模型,通过模拟实验分析了盆山地壳横向差异变化对挤压构造变形的影响。实验结果表明,端部的挤压收缩位移由刚性的"克拉通"推挤相对软弱的"造山楔"使之形成挤压"冲起构造",而"造山楔"发生收缩变形的同时也斜向推挤刚性的"克拉通",并通过克拉通内部的滑脱层将收缩应变向克拉通内部传递。受不同深度滑脱层发育的影响,"克拉通"发育分层不协调收缩变形。在挤压作用下,随着"造山楔"与"克拉通"地壳在横向上能干性差异的增加,"造山楔"收缩形成的"冲起构造"幅度减小,而向"克拉通"侧向(斜向)挤压形成的"反冲构造"幅度增加,"造山楔"通过深层滑脱层向"克拉通"传递收缩应变的调节能力减弱,通过浅层滑脱层向"克拉通"传递收缩应变的调节能力增强。"造山楔"由深层过渡至浅层形成强变形带,由"克拉通"边缘至内部形成的深层冲断褶皱与浅层褶皱冲断组合过渡为深层褶皱与浅层的褶皱冲断组合,"克拉通"边缘的冲断带由深层的前展式楔状逆冲叠瓦扇构造向"克拉通"内部的浅层褶皱组合过渡。实验结果为理解中国西北部复杂山前冲断带构造的形成机制具有启示作用。     

The Siwaliks of western Nepal: II. Mechanics of the thrust wedge

Comparison between numerical models and structural data is used for a better understanding of the evolution of the Siwalik thrust belt of western Nepal. The numerical model involves discontinuities within a critical wedge model, a kinematic forward model of serial cross sections, and a linear diffusion algorithm to simulate erosion and sedimentation. In western Nepal, large Piggy-back basins (Duns) are located above thick thrust sheets that involve more than 5500 m of the Neogene Siwalik Group, whereas Piggy-back basin sedimentation is less developed above thinner thrust sheets (4300 m thick). Numerical model results suggest that thrust sheet thickness and extension of wedge-top basins are both related to an increase of the basal décollement dip beneath the duns. The West Dang Transfer zone (WDTZ) is a N–NE trending tectonic lineament that limits the westward extent of the large Piggy-back basins of mid-western Nepal and is linked to a thickening of the Himalayan wedge eastward. The WDTZ also affects the seismotectonics pattern, the geometry of the thrust front, the lateral extent of Lesser Himalayan thrust sheets, and the subsidence of the foreland basin during middle Siwalik sedimentation. Numerical models suggest that the individualisation of the Piggy-back basins at the transition between the middle Siwalik and upper Siwaliks followed the deposition of the middle Siwaliks that induced a geometry of the foreland basin close to the critical taper. As WDTZ induces an E–W thickning of the Himalayan wedge, it could also induce a northward shift of the leading edge of the ductile deformation above the basal detachment in Greater Himalayas of far-western Nepal. Field data locally suggest episodic out-off-sequence thrusting in the frontal thrust belt of western Nepal, whereas numerical results suggests that episodic out-off sequence reactivation could be a general characteristic of the Himalayan wedge evolution often hidden by erosion.     

中国陆内造山带造山过程地球动力学分析

本文论证了我国陆内造山带岩石圈结构、造山过程岩石圈浅层变形构造样式、盆山变形构造时空耦合关系、造山过程与沉积盆地变形动力学模式等。提出中国西部造山带造山过程岩石圈变形总体是：上部以伸展变形为主,中部以挤压变形为主,下部以伸展变形为主。通过中国造山带造山过程与沉积盆地变形作用时空耦合关系对比研究,首次建立起造山过程与沉积盆地形成时空耦合关系的三类四型动力学模式：单向楔入造山推覆成盆、双向楔入造山推覆成盆、剪切造山反转成盆和伸展造山断陷成盆模式。     

底部滑脱层流变性和厚度变化对褶皱冲断带影响的数值模拟

滑脱层是影响褶皱冲断带的第一因素。为了探讨底部滑脱层流变性和厚度变化对褶皱冲断带的影响,本文通过二维有限差分软件FLAC开展了数值模拟研究。常见的泥岩滑脱层具摩擦性质,此类冲断带采用弹塑性模型;而盐岩滑脱层具蠕变性质,此类冲断带则采用黏弹塑性模型。结果表明,底部滑脱层流变性以及厚度对冲断带的变形影响很大。当滑脱层为泥岩时,发育典型的叠瓦状构造样式,变形序列为背驮式向前扩展的有序序列。而当滑脱层为盐岩时,发育背、向斜相间排列的侏罗山式构造样式,并以无序序列演化。底部滑脱层厚度的变化,对泥岩滑脱层的冲断带而言,主要改变其表面坡角,对构造样式和演化序列影响不大;但对盐岩滑脱层的冲断带影响很大,不管滑脱层最厚的地方分布在后陆还是前陆,变形都会最强烈,地表凸起最高。从后陆向前陆加厚的盐岩滑脱层结合由后陆向前陆略为减薄的上覆地层可产生罕见的后冲、后展式演化序列。这些变形的差异主要是由于盐岩比泥岩具有小得多的剪切强度所致。     

大别造山带南界襄樊—广济断裂带的演化规律与构造意义

自中三叠世扬子与华北板块发生碰撞—深俯冲作用以来,大别造山带南界上的襄樊—广济断裂带主要经历过两次变形事件: 1)早期变形事件发生在中三叠世末—晚三叠世初的造山带折返阶段,表现为造山带南边界上的韧性剪切带。这期北西—南东走向的剪切带向南西陡倾,发育北西—南东向的矿物拉伸线理,主要为右行走滑的运动性质,属于造山带斜向折返的侧边界走滑剪切带。造山带折返过程中将前陆褶断带北缘原先东西向褶皱改造为北西—南东走向。2)晚期变形事件发生在晚侏罗世,表现为脆性逆冲断层,使得前陆褶断带向北东逆冲在造山带南缘之上,同时在前陆上形成了一系列的逆冲断层。该断裂带的晚期逆冲活动与郯庐断裂带左行平移同时发生,代表了滨太平洋构造活动的开始。     

Revisiting the orogenic energy balance in the western Taiwan orogen with weak faults

Orogens at convergent margins must meet the energetic requirements necessary to lift rocks against gravity, allow for frictional sliding along basal detachments and accommodate internal deformation processes. The combination of critical taper and kinematic wedge theories predicts the partitioning between these energy sinks as a function of both fault and crustal strengths. Integrating contemporary estimates of both crustal pore fluid pressures and the coefficient of friction on major faults, we find that work associated with internal deformation processes is the dominant energy sink in the western Taiwan orogenic wedge. These processes consume 54% of the total work budget, while the dissipation rates associated with frictional sliding on the basal detachment and lifting rocks against gravity are lower, requiring only 11% and 35% respectively. These results suggest a mechanical dichotomy in orogenic wedges where the faulting dominates the kinematic deformation budget, but internal distributed deformation processes dominate the energy budget.     

南大巴山冲断构造及其剪切挤压动力学机制

南大巴山是一个形成于T3－K1，滑脱深度小于8－10km 的扬于板块北缘薄皮冲断锲它主要由发育在显生宙地层中台阶状逆断层及断层相关褶皱构成的逆冲岩席、双重推覆体和冲起构造等组成。变形扩展以前列式为主。经平衡地质剖面制作，因冲断南大巴山地壳缩短率平均达49.3％。并以每年约1.28mm 的速率总体缩短约64km，它的成因受控于秦岭碰撞造山过程中扬于板块北缘A型俯冲所提供挤压应力，在向南扩展时，由于古大陆边缘形态不一所诱发的右旋剪切挤压动力学机制。     

库车再生前陆盆地冲断构造楔特征

库车再生前陆盆地冲断构造楔由一系列向南运动的逆冲断层和相关褶皱组成。冲断楔的北部以断层转折褶皱、断层传播褶皱、双重逆冲构造为主。断层楔的前缘发育了很好的滑脱膝折背斜,全为盲断层控制,形成隐蔽式前锋。冲断层的就位从中新世开始,自北向南迁移,前锋的构造形成在第四纪。造成逆冲断层的地壳水平缩短作用速度在中新世较慢,平均为0．355mm/a,上新世中期达0．82mm/a,而到上新世晚期和第四纪速度增大了约一个数量级,达到1．29－3mm/a。     

Influence of syntectonic sedimentation on thrust geometry. Field examples from the Iberian Chain (Spain) and analogue modelling

Steep thrusts are usually interpreted as oblique-slip thrusts or inverted normal faults. However, recent analogical and numerical models have emphasised the influence of surface mass-transfer phenomena on the structural evolution of compressive systems. This research points to sedimentation and erosion during deformation as an additional explanation for the origin of steeply dipping thrusts. The present study uses both field observations and analogue modelling to attempt to isolate critical parameters of syntectonic sedimentation that might control the geometry of the upper part of thrust systems.A field study of thrust systems bounding two compressive intermountain Tertiary basins of the Iberian Chain is first briefly presented. We describe the surface geometry of thrusts surrounding the Montalbán Basin and the Alto Tajo Syncline at the vicinity of deposits of Oligocene–Early Miocene alluvial fans at the footwall of faults. Field observations suggest that synthrusting sedimentation should influence the structure of thrusts. Indeed, the faults are steeper and splitted at the edge of the syntectonic deposits.Effects of sedimentation rate on footwall of thrusts, and of its change along fault strike are further investigated on two-layer brittle-ductile analogue models submitted to compression and syntectonic sediment supply. Two series of experiments were made corresponding to two end-members of depositional geometries. In the first series, the sedimentation was homogeneously distributed on both sides of the relief developed above the thrust front. In the second series, deposits were localised on a particular area of the footwall of thrust front. In all experiments, the sedimentation rate controls the number and the dip of faults. For low sedimentation rates, a single low-angle thrust develops; whereas for high sedimentation rates, a series of steeper dipping thrust is observed. In experiments with changing sedimentation rate along fault strike, the thrust geometry varies behind the areas with the thickest sediment pile.     

Early foreland deformation of the Fuegian Andes (Argentina): Constraints from the strain analysis of Upper Cretaceous-Danian sedimentary rocks

This contribution addresses new structural data from Upper Cretaceous-Danian sedimentary rocks of the Fuegian Andes orogenic front in Argentina. The structures studied, called D′, were formed during the early foreland deformation of the orogen, in the Late Cretaceous-Danian, in times when South America and Antarctica were still connected. The strain analysis of these structures indicates that deformation occurred at upper-crustal depths, and was characterized by flexural folding accompanied by formation of pressure-solution tectonic foliations in zones of higher strain. Deformation intensities increase toward the hinterland and with depth. The history of deformation involved progression from layer-parallel shortening to folding above a detachment, and further formation of a forward-propagating thrust wedge. Layer-parallel shortening and incipient folding recorded in Maastrichtian-Danian rocks indicate the leading edge of D′ deformation. Non-coaxial finite strain orientations were involved during formation of D′ structures along the Fuegian Andes front. These finite strain orientations cannot be explained with the SW-NE regional contraction usually assumed to have driven Andean deformation in this region; alternatively, we consider that N-S contraction combined with buttressing against the cratonic foreland comprise a more suitable interpretation for D′ and younger deformation.     

Kinematics-Based Mathematical Model for Deforming Thrust Wedges

Given the wealth of data concerning the kinematics of deforming fold-thrust belts (FTBs), first-order generalizations about how the major strain components vary within a deforming thrust wedges are considered. These generally observed strain patterns are used to constrain a general, kinematics-based, FTB-wedge model. We considered five strain components within a deforming thrust sheet: (1) thrust-parallel simple shear, (2) horizontal contractional strain, (3) thrust-normal reaction strain, (4) gravitational strain, and (5) a lateral confining boundary condition. After making assumptions about how these strain components vary within a model FTB-wedge, the incremental deformation matrix can be calculated for any given point within the deforming wedge. Thus, the material path of a given marker can be determined and an initially spherical marker’s strain path can be calculated as it moves through the deforming wedge. Furthermore, by illustrating various kinematic parameters of many initially spherical markers (for example, Flinn’s k-value, incremental octahedral shear strain, transport-perpendicular stretch), we have assembled representations of the kinematic properties of the entire model wedge. By including a flat-ramp-flat fault surface geometry for the model wedge, we are able to examine the kinematic effects of this relatively common structural geometry. Within the fault ramp segment there are greater incremental strain magnitudes, out-of-the-plane motion, and flattening strains. Additionally, data from this model suggests that gravitational strains potentially have a significant effect on the strain distribution within a deforming thrust wedge. M. Mookerjee is formerly Matthew Strine.     

双层滑脱构造的物理模拟：对准噶尔盆地南缘褶皱冲断带的启示

为了研究双层滑脱构造变形的主控因素,设计了3类砂箱模型,对滑脱层材料、滑脱层厚度、滑脱层黏度、上覆砂层厚度、受力边界条件等主控因素进行物理模拟试验研究。试验结果表明：不同滑脱层材料产生的变形样式不同。以微玻璃珠组成的滑脱层主要产生前展型逆冲叠瓦式断裂构造,下部滑脱层起主控滑脱作用,上部滑脱层厚度、滑脱层之上砂层厚度越大越容易形成滑脱断层;挤压方向与受力边界间的夹角较大时,上部滑脱层容易先形成滑脱断层,其推覆体前缘水平位移较快。以不同黏度硅胶组成的滑脱层产生不同的分层滑脱构造变形样式,当下部滑脱层硅胶黏度为500～1 000Pa.s时,形成分层滑脱前展型叠瓦式构造;当硅胶黏度为2 000～2 500Pa.s时,靠近挤压端先形成背冲构造,然后在上部滑脱层形成叠瓦式构造,在下部滑脱层形成对冲三角带构造、冲起背斜构造。地震和钻井资料显示,准噶尔盆地南缘西段霍尔果斯—安集海褶皱冲断带具有双层滑脱变形特征;模拟结果认为,斜向受力边界、侏罗纪煤层以及古近纪泥岩层的分层滑脱作用是控制变形过程的主要因素。     

Superposed folding of a blind thrust and formation of klippen: results of anisotropic magnetic susceptibility studies from the Lesser Himalaya

The rocks of the Garhwal Lesser Himalaya have undergone a weak superimposed deformation, hence linear and planar structures are either absent or poorly developed. This puts a severe limitation on application of conventional methods of finite strain determination in understanding the deformation pattern. However, the geometry, orientation, and distribution of magnetic susceptibility strain ellipses clearly reveal the effects of early and superposed deformations in the area. The orientation patterns of the ellipses also help to identify reversal of displacement along an oblique fault ramp during the superposed deformation. The Hrouda double plot reveals a combination of lateral shortening and simple shear, thereby suggesting a small translation along the klippe detachment thrust. The study has important implications for understanding the structural evolution of the Lesser Himalayan klippen, because the earlier models, in the absence of the relevant data, are based on assumptions concerning thrust displacement. The present field studies and the AMS data favour an alternate model for the structural evolution of the Lesser Himalayan klippen, that lie in the core of the Mussoorie Syncline. The model explains structural features and outcrop patterns as due to a combination of fault bifurcation, back thrusts, pop-up, and subsequent superposed deformation. The klippen lie over their roots and are described as pop-up klippen.     

Rheological and kinematical responses to flow of two-phase rocks

Numerical simulations have been performed to investigate the strain-dependent behaviour of rheological and kinematical responses to flow of two-phase rocks using the commercial finite-difference program FLAC2D. It was assumed that the two phases have Maxwell rheology. Plane strain and velocity boundary condition, which produces a simple shear deformation, were also assumed. Two types of geometries were considered: strong phase supported (SPS) and weak phase supported (WPS). We calculated strain-dependent variations of effective viscosity and partitioning of strain rate, vorticity and kinematic vorticity number during deformation in both SPS and WPS structure models.The results show that the strain-dependent behaviour is largely influenced by the geometry of the composite. SPS models show both strain hardening and strain softening during the simulations, with strain hardening preceding strain softening. A critical shear strain is necessary to begin the strain softening behaviour. Strain hardening and strain softening are accompanied by a reduction and an increase of the partition of strain rate into the weak phase, respectively. On the other hand, WPS models show only weak strain hardening and strain softening, being the strain-dependent behaviour close to a steady state flow. In addition, the following results are obtained on vorticity and kinematic vorticity number; (1) in both SPS and WPS models the partition of vorticity into weak phase increases with progressive shear strain, i.e. the strong phase becomes less rotational, (2) in SPS models weak inclusions changes from sub-simple shear to super-simple shear with progressive strain, whereas the strong matrix changes from super-simple shear to sub-simple shear, (3) in WPS models the strong inclusions with high viscosity contrasts are less rotational but can be in super-simple shear condition to high strains.The observed strain-dependent behaviours have been compared with previous proposed analytical models. The degree of agreement is variable. Balshin and Ryshkewitch–Duckworth models are only applicable to SPS models. Ji-generalized mixture rule model is applicable to both models.The results suggest that polyphase rocks with SPS structure during ductile shear deformation respond as strain softening materials, after an initial strain hardening stage that may drive to the strain localization into the material.