Effect of altered Arctic sea ice and Greenland ice sheet cover on the climate of the GENESIS general circulation model

Previous studies have examined the effect of reduced Arctic sea ice cover on the circulation of climate models. Generally, the response is restricted to high northern latitudes. Here we examine a variant on those simulations, specifying both reduced Arctic sea ice cover and no Greenland ice sheet. The GENESIS general circulation model is used in these experiments. As in earlier studies, we find the effect limited primarily to the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, being greater in winter than in summer. New results reported herein involve: (1) in winter reduced Arctic ice cover has a significantly greater effect than reduced Greenland ice cover; (2) reduced ice cover had little effect on location of the winter freezing line over North America and Eurasia; (3) removal of ice caused a 30–50% increase in precipitation in high northern latitudes; however there were no significant effects elsewhere. This result does not support the hypothesis that past changes in Arctic ice cover were responsible for significant changes in area of tropical rainforests; (4) there is a peculiar surface pressure anomaly that extends into the high latitudes of the southern hemisphere. This anomaly may be a spurious artifact of the effect of the removed Greenland ice sheet on the spherical harmonic expansion terms in the model. These sensitivity experiments should serve as a useful frame of reference for future Pliocene simulations with a more complete set of altered boundary conditions.     

Meltwater and the global ocean conveyor: northern versus southern connections

The sensitivity of the ocean circulation to changes in North Atlantic surface fluxes has become a major factor in explaining climate variability. The role of the Antarctic Bottom Water in modulating this variability has received much less attention, limiting the development of a complete understanding of decadal to millennial time-scale climate change. New analyses indicate that the southern deepwater source may change dramatically (e.g., experience a decrease of as much as two thirds during last 800 years). Such change can substantially alter the ocean circulation patterns of the last millennium. Additional analyses indicate that the Southern Hemisphere led the Northern Hemisphere changes in some of the glacial cycles of Pleistocene, implying a seesaw-type oscillation of the global ocean conveyor. The potential for melting of sea ice and ice sheets in the Antarctica associated with global warming can cause a further slowdown of the southern deepwater source. These results demand an assessment of the role of the Southern Ocean in driving changes of the global ocean circulation and climate. Systematic model simulation targeting the ocean circulation response to changes in surface salinity in the high latitudes of both Northern and Southern Hemispheres demonstrate that meltwater impacts in one hemisphere may lead to a strengthening of the thermohaline conveyor driven by the source in the opposite hemisphere. This, in turn, leads to significant changes in poleward heat transport. Further, meltwater events can lead to deep-sea warming and thermal expansion of abyssal water, that in turn cause a substantial sea-level change even without a major ice sheet melting.     

The effects of reduced land fraction and solar forcing on the general circulation: results from the NCAR CCM

Land fraction and the solar energy at the top of the atmosphere (solar constant) may have been significantly lower early in Earth's history. It is likely that both of these factors played some important role in the climate of the early earth. The climate changes associated with a global ocean(i.e. no continents) and reduced solar constant are examined with a general circulation model and compared with the present-day climate simulation. The general circulation model used in the study is the NCAR CCM with a swamp ocean surface. First, all land points are removed in the model and then the solar constant is reduced by 10% for this global ocean case.Results indicate that a 4 K increase in air temperature occurs with global ocean simulation compared to the control. When solar constant is reduced by 10% under global ocean conditions a 23 K decrease in air temperature is noted. The global ocean warms much of the troposphere and stratosphere, while a reduction in the solar constant cools the troposphere and stratosphere. The largest cooling occurs near the surface with the lower solar constant.Global mean values of evaporation, water vapor amounts, absorbed solar radiation and the downward longwave radiation are increased under global ocean conditions, while all are reduced when the solar constant is lowered. The global ocean simulation produces sea ice only in the highest latitudes. A frozen planet does not occur when the solar constant is reduced—rather, the ice line settles near 30° of latitude. It is near this latitude that transient eddies transport large amounts of sensible heat across the ice line acting as a negative feedback under lower solar constant conditions keeping sea ice from migrating to even lower latitudes.Clouds, under lower solar forcing, also act as a negative feedback because they are reduced in higher latitudes with colder atmospheric temperatures allowing additional solar radiation to reach the surface. The overall effect of clouds in the global ocean is to act as a positive feedback because they are slightly reduced thereby allowing additional solar radiation to reach the surface and increase the warming caused by the removal of land. The relevance of the results to the “Faint-Young Sun Paradox” indicates that reduced land fraction and solar forcing affect dynamics, heat transport, and clouds. Therefore the associated feedbacks should be taken into account in order to understand their roles in resolving the “Faint-Young Sun Paradox”.     

The glacial–interglacial paradox: the relation between the global means of sea level and sea surface temperature

Sea level variability during the Quarternary is simulated using a stochastic climate model, and a sensitivity relation for the change in net oceanic evaporation due to a change in sea surface temperature. In the application of this relation, it is assumed that the greater part of the change in net oceanic evaporation causes changes in the land ice storage, rather than being directly returned to the ocean by rivers. The analysis suggests that the observed sea level changes can be interpreted as due to the transfer of heat to the deep ocean from the surface mixed layer, arising from random radiation perturbations of the same variance as would give rise to the interannual variability of the global temperature series. The paradox is that glacial conditions (increase in ice storage) are favoured by positive (temperate) sea surface temperature anomalies, and interglacial conditions (decrease in ice storage) by negative (temperate) sea surface temperature anomalies. The evolution of both these regimes, which are inherently unstable, appears to be controlled by the deep water formation process, while albedo feedback is of minor importance. Fluvial feedback, (in which as the ice storage increases the fluvial inflow decreases), however, is found to be an important process, and a small sensitivity of river inflow to storage is consistent with forcing by random variability or by astronomical forcing. A simple analytical model incorporating the key processes of oceanic evaporation and fluvial feedback is presented. The analysis points to the importance of an accurate river model for climate system modelling.     

Late Pleistocene ice export events into the Arctic Ocean from the M'Clure Strait Ice Stream, Canadian Arctic Archipelago

Rapidly-flowing sectors of an ice sheet (ice streams) can play an important role in abrupt climate change through the delivery of icebergs and meltwater and the subsequent disruption of ocean thermohaline circulation (e.g., the North Atlantic's Heinrich events). Recently, several cores have been raised from the Arctic Ocean which document the existence of massive ice export events during the Late Pleistocene and whose provenance has been linked to source regions in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. In this paper, satellite imagery is used to map glacial geomorphology in the vicinity of Victoria Island, Banks Island and Prince of Wales Island (Canadian Arctic) in order to reconstruct ice flow patterns in the highly complex glacial landscape. A total of 88 discrete flow-sets are mapped and of these, 13 exhibit the characteristic geomorphology of palaeo-ice streams (i.e., parallel patterns of large, highly elongated mega-scale glacial lineations forming a convergent flow pattern with abrupt lateral margins). Previous studies by other workers and cross-cutting relationships indicate that the majority of these ice streams are relatively young and operated during or immediately prior to deglaciation. Our new mapping, however, documents a large (> 700 km long; 110 km wide) and relatively old ice stream imprint centred in M'Clintock Channel and converging into Viscount Melville Sound. A trough mouth fan located on the continental shelf suggests that it extended along M'Clure Strait and was grounded at the shelf edge. The location of the M'Clure Strait Ice Stream exactly matches the source area of 4 (possibly 5) major ice export events recorded in core PS1230 raised from Fram Strait, the major ice exit for the Arctic Ocean. These ice export events occur at 12.9, 15.6, 22 and 29.8 ka (¹⁴C yr BP) and we argue that they record vigorous episodes of activity of the M'Clure Strait Ice Stream. The timing of these events is remarkably similar to the North Atlantic's Heinrich events and we take this as evidence that the M'Clure Strait Ice Stream was also activated around the same time. This may hold important implications for the cause of the North Atlantic's Heinrich events and hints at the possibility of a pan-ice sheet response.     

Are dust storm activities in North China related to Arctic ice–snow cover?

The generation and development of dust storms are controlled by land surface conditions and atmospheric circulations. The latter, in turn, is influenced by the global ice–snow cover. In this study, we examine the relationship between the characteristics of dust storm activities in north China and the changes of global climate patterns. In particular, we are interested in whether Arctic ice–snow cover is related to the dust storm frequencies and intensities in north China. Our analysis, based on the monthly data for the period from 1954 to 1994, shows that this is indeed the case. This result suggests that the Arctic ice–snow cover can be used for the long-term prediction of dust storm activities in north China, and dust storm activities also serve as an indicator of global climate change.     

海洋潮汐模型在浅海区域的应用

海洋潮汐和大气、海洋、海冰之间存在复杂的相互作用,它对地球气候有复杂而深远的影响。海潮对流经大陆沿岸或大陆架的洋流有很强烈的作用。潮汐流产生混合湍动;潮汐耗散和内潮波效应对海洋环流的传输和循环也有一定的影响。1995年前后,使用TOPEX／POSEIDON测高卫星资料。建立了十多个海潮模型。研究表明,1994-1996年期间发展起来的正压波海潮模型在深海的精度为2—3cm,空间分辨率为50km量级,在浅海区域的精度显著下降。近年来运用更加成熟精细的流体动力学理论模型,在数据同化技术中使用时间跨度更长的测高资料,已经建立了一些改进的海潮模型。该文使用验潮站潮汐常数、测高资料以及交叉点资料,评估了6个海潮模型在浅海区域(包括中国海海域)的表现,以应用于今后对海平面的研究。初步分析表明,浅海区域的海平面高度的误差仍然相当显著。要发展海洋潮汐模型需要进一步减小潮汐混淆效应,提高长周期潮汐的精度,尤其在浅海区域。模型的改进必将增进对潮汐现象的认识,促进学科间进行相互融合和相互渗透的研究(例如潮汐摩擦引起的月球自转的长期缓慢减速、地球内部结构的物理学研究等)。     

The fracture of water ice Ih: A short overview

Abstract— This paper presents a short overview of the fracture of water ice Ih. Topics include the ductile‐to‐brittle transition, tensile and compressive strength, compressive failure under multiaxial loading, compressive failure modes, and brittle failure on the geophysical scale (Arctic sea ice cover, Europa's icy crust). Emphasis is placed on the underlying physical mechanisms. Where appropriate, comment is made on the formation of high‐latitude impact craters on Mars.     

Thoughts on monitoring the effects of climate change on the surface elevation of the Greenland ice sheet

The effect of mass balance variations on changes in surface elevation of the Greenland ice sheet is examined in connection with the rise in sea level that will be caused by increased melting. Changes in surface elevation of several metres (of either sign) can occur in the ablation area of the ice sheet over a period of a few years as a result of random ablation forcing without being evidence of change in mean climate. Similar, but smaller, changes can occur in the accumulation area due to accumulation forcing. The ablation area of the ice sheet probably thickened from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s as a result of lower ablation in that period but thinned again in the late 1980s as a result of higher ablation then. There is no evidence of any present trend of increased melting. Future climate warming will involve an accelerated thinning of the ablation area that could be detected in 1–2 decades against the background of natural fluctuations in surface elevation.     

Testing the effects of ocean heat transport on climate

An atmospheric general circulation model is run with boundary conditions representing different amounts of equator-to-pole oceanic heat transport. Oceanic heat transport underneath sea ice is held fixed, minimizing positive feedbacks due to sea ice and thereby providing a lower bound on the effects of oceanic heat transport on climate. When oceanic heat transport is reduced, some compensating increases in atmospheric heat transport occur, but tropical surface temperatures increase and atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns undergo significant changes. We conclude that the ability of the oceans to generate past and future climatic changes through transport of heat is substantial, even though it is limited by a tendency of the atmosphere to partly compensate for changes in oceanic heat transport.     

Joint investigations of the Middle Pliocene climate I: PRISM paleoenvironmental reconstructions

The Pliocene epoch represents an important transition from a climate regime with high-frequency, low-amplitude oscillations when the Northern Hemisphere lacked substantial ice sheets, to the typical high-frequency, high-amplitude Middle to Late Pleistocene regime characterized by glacial—interglacial cycles that involve waxing and waning of major Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. Analysis of middle Pliocene (3 Ma) marine and terrestrial records throughout the Northern Hemisphere forms the basis of an integrated synoptic Pliocene paleoclimate reconstruction of the last significantly warmer than present interval in Earth history. This reconstruction, developed primarily from paleontological data, includes middle Pliocene sea level, vegetation, land—ice distribution, sea—ice distribution, and sea-surface temperature (SST), all of which contribute to our conceptual understanding of this climate system. These data indicate middle Pliocene sea level was at least 25 m higher than present, presumably due in large part to a reduction in the size of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. Sea surface temperatures were essentially equivalent to modern temperatures in tropical regions but were significantly warmer at higher latitudes. Due to increased heat flux to high latitudes, both the Arctic and Antarctic appear to have been seasonally ice free during the middle Pliocene with greatly reduced sea ice extent relative to today during winter. Vegetation changes, while more complex, are generally consistent with marine SST changes and show increased warmth and moisture at higher latitudes during the middle Pliocene.     

Origin of ice diapirism, true polar wander, subsurface ocean, and tiger stripes of Enceladus driven by compositional convection

We consider the scenario in which the presence of ammonia in the bulk composition of Enceladus plays a pivotal role in its thermochemical evolution. Because ammonia reduces the melting temperature of the ice shell by 100 K below that of pure water ice, small amounts of tidal dissipation can power an “ammonia feedback” mechanism that leads to secondary differentiation of Enceladus within the ice shell. This leads to compositionally distinct zones at the base of the ice shell arranged such that a layer of lower density (and compositionally buoyant) pure water ice underlies the undifferentiated ammonia-dihydrate ice layer above. We then consider a large scale instability arising from the pure water ice layer, and use a numerical model to explore the dynamics of compositional convection within the ice shell of Enceladus. The instability of the layer can easily account for a diapir that is hemispherical in scale. As it rises to the surface, it co-advects the warm internal temperatures towards the outer layers of the satellite. This advected heat facilitates the generation of a subsurface ocean within the ice shell of Enceladus. This scenario can simultaneously account for the origin of asymmetry in surface deformation observed on Enceladus as well as two global features inferred to exist: a large density anomaly within the interior and a subsurface ocean underneath the south polar region.     

Abrupt climate change revisited

Taken together, evidence from east Greenland's mountain moraines and results from atmospheric models appear to provide the answer to a question which has long dogged abrupt climate change research: namely, how were impacts of the Younger Dryas (YD), Dansgaard–Oeschger (D–O) and Heinrich (H) events transmitted so quickly and efficiently throughout the northern hemisphere and tropics? The answer appears to lie in extensive winter sea ice formation which created Siberian-like conditions in the regions surrounding the northern Atlantic. Not only would this account for the ultra cold conditions in the north, but, as suggested by models, it would have pushed the tropical rain belt southward and weakened the monsoons. The requisite abrupt changes in the extent of sea ice cover are of course best explained by the turning on and turning off of the Atlantic's conveyor circulation.     

The Pleistocene evolution of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Prydz bay region: stable isotopic evidence from ODP Site 1167

Ocean Drilling Program Leg 188, Prydz Bay, East Antarctica is part of a larger initiative to explore the Cenozoic history of the Antarctic Ice Sheet through direct drilling and sampling of the continental margins. In this paper, we present stable isotopic results from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1167 located on the Prydz Channel Trough Mouth Fan (TMF), the first Antarctic TMF to be drilled. The foraminifer-based δ¹⁸O record is interpreted along with sedimentary and downhole logging evidence to reconstruct the Quaternary glacial history of Prydz Bay and the adjacent Lambert Glacier Amery Ice Shelf System (LGAISS). We report an electron spin resonance age date of 36.9±3.3 ka at 0.45 m below sea floor and correlate suspected glacial–interglacial cycles with the global isotopic stratigraphy to improve the chronology for Site 1167. The δ¹⁸O record based on planktonic (Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (s.)) and limited benthic results (Globocassidulina crassa), indicates a trend of ice sheet expansion that was interrupted by a period of reduced ice volume and possibly warmer conditions during the early–mid-Pleistocene (0.9–1.38 Ma). An increase in δ¹⁸O values after 900 ka appears to coincide with the mid-Pleistocene climate transition and the expansion of the northern hemisphere ice sheet. The δ¹⁸O record in the upper 50 m of the stratigraphic section indicates as few as three glacial–interglacial cycles, tentatively assigned as marine isotopic stages (MIS) 16–21, are preserved since the Brunhes/Matuyama paleomagnetic reversal (780 ka). This suggests that there is a large unconformity near the top of the section and/or that there may have been few extreme advances of the ice sheet since the mid-Pleistocene climate transition resulting in lowered sedimentation rates on the Prydz Channel TMF. The stable isotopic record from Site 1167 is one of the few available from the area south of the Antarctic Polar Front that has been linked with the global isotopic stratigraphy. Our results suggest the potential for the recovery of useful stable isotopic records in other TMFs.     

Origin of martian northern hemisphere mid-latitude lobate debris aprons

Lobate debris aprons in the martian mid- to high-latitudes (northern and southern hemispheres) have been interpreted as ice-related features that indicate periglacial climate conditions as recently as late Amazonian. Using MOLA topographic profiles perpendicular to apron flow fronts, we surveyed 36 debris aprons in the northern hemisphere found in the regions of Mareotis, Protonilus, and Deuteronilus Mensae and Acheron Fossae. The profiles of these aprons were compared with idealized simple plastic and viscous power law models for ice-rock mixtures. All aprons studied exhibit convex profiles similar to a simple plastic model. This confirms previous interpretations that debris aprons are ice-rich mixtures with rheologies similar to stagnant ice sheets, thus indicating high ice concentrations (>40% by volume). About 60% of the surveyed debris apron population significantly deviates from the idealized simple plastic model profile; this may be due to locally reduced ice content, which primarily controls apron topography. Although post-emplacement modification due to near-surface ice sublimation plays a secondary role in defining the overall shape of aprons, it causes conspicuous surface textures. Degradation by ice sublimation probably results in pitted and ridge-and-furrow surface textures revealed by high resolution MOC images. Such textures may indicate decreased near-surface ice stability since the formation of the aprons, possibly due to Mars' current low obliquity after their emplacement. High ice content inferred from topography suggests some debris aprons have ice cores: potentially exploitable water resources for future robotic/human operations that could prove invaluable for missions remote from polar regions.     

Late Weichselian to Holocene paleoenvironments in the Barents Sea

Paleoceanographic changes since the Late Weichselian have been studied in three sediment cores raised from shelf depressions along a north–south transect across the central Barents Sea. AMS radiocarbon dating offers a resolution of several hundred years for the Holocene. The results of lithological and micropaleontological study reveal the response of the Barents Sea to global climatic changes and Atlantic water inflow. Four evolutionary stages were distinguished. The older sediments are moraine deposits. The destruction of the Barents Sea ice sheet during the beginning of the deglaciation in response to climate warming and sea level rise resulted in proximal glaciomarine sedimentation. Then, the retreat of the glacier front to archipelagoes during the main phase of deglaciation caused meltwater discharge and restricted iceberg calving. Fine-grained distal glaciomarine sediments were deposited from periodic near-bottom nepheloid flows and the area was almost permanently covered with sea ice. The dramatic change in paleoenvironment occurred near the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary when normal marine conditions ultimately established resulting in a sharp increase of biological productivity. This event was diachronous and started prior to 10 ¹⁴C ka BP in the southern and about 9.2 ¹⁴C ka in the northern Barents Sea. Variations in sediment supply, paleoproductivity, sea-ice conditions, and Atlantic water inflow controlled paleoenvironmental changes during the Holocene.     

Electromagnetic characterization of polar ice-wedge polygons: Implications for periglacial studies on Mars and Earth

Polygonal terrain is found in a variety of polar environments on Earth and Mars. As a result, many areas of northern Canada may represent ideal terrestrial analogues for specific regions of Mars - in particular the northern plains. In the Canadian Arctic, polygon troughs are commonly underlain by wedges of massive ice, with rare examples of other wedge types. If the same is true for Mars, this raises interesting implications for the processes that concentrate H₂O at the Martian poles. This study uses an electromagnetic induction sensor to investigate the electromagnetic characteristics of terrestrial polar ice-wedge polygons. Surveys were conducted in two regions of the Canadian Arctic using a DUALEM-1S dual-geometry electromagnetic induction sensor, which measures electrical conductivity in the first 1.5-2 m of the subsurface. At locations where strong geomorphological evidence of ice was found, polygon troughs corresponded to local conductive anomalies. Trenching confirmed the presence of ice wedges at one site and allowed ground-truthing and calibration of the geophysical data. Previously unknown bodies of massive ice were also identified through the use of this geophysical technique. This study shows that an electromagnetic induction sounder is a useful instrument for detecting and mapping out the presence of subsurface ice in the Canadian Arctic. Taking together with its small size, portability and ruggedness, we suggest that this would also be a useful instrument for any future missions to Mars’ polar regions.     

Control of the Antarctic ice sheet by ocean–ice interaction

The Antarctic ice cap is the largest ice sheet of modern times. It is of considerable importance to predict the sea level variability due to the associated changes in ice volume. We present the results of a simple grounded ice sheet model, developed from Oerlemans [Oerlemans, J., 2002. Global dynamics of the Antarctic Ice Sheet, Climate Dynamics 19, 85–93.], in which the net oceanic evaporation influences the ice cap volume in two ways, through changes in: (i) the accumulation rate, and (ii) the mean sea level. The net evaporation changes are driven by the sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly time series of Howard [Howard, W.R., 1997. A warm future in the past, Nature, 388, 418–419.] for the subantarctic Southern Ocean over the period 220 kyr to the present. The effect of the waxing and waning of the northern hemisphere ice sheets is integrated into the model using an independent model, in which ice melting depends on the SST anomaly and ice calving depends on the sea level anomaly. A series of analytical expressions are derived for the related properties of the coupled ocean–ice system applicable over time scales of 100 kyr, which show, in particular, that the Antarctic ice cap volume changes are due mainly to the effects of the northern hemisphere ice sheets on sea level (which influences ice calving), rather than directly to changes in SST, and hence the ice cap volume is greatest during interglacial periods. This conclusion, which is independent of the specification of the ice melting regime for the northern hemisphere ice sheets, strongly suggests that the changes in accumulation flux estimated from the Vostok proxy temperature data and used in other studies of the Antarctic mass balance have been overestimated. A simple expression is also presented for the lag of ice cap volume to SST, and it is found that the predictions for the mean sea level variability are similar to observations for a melting flux of the northern hemisphere ice sheets about twice their accumulation flux due to the net oceanic evaporation, except during major deglaciations when these two fluxes appear to be of similar magnitude.     

The Greenland ice sheet and greenhouse warming

Increased melting on glaciers and ice sheets and rising sea level are often mentioned as important aspects of the anticipated greenhouse warming of the earth's atmosphere. This paper deals with the sensitivity of Greenland's ice mass budget and presents a tentative projection of the Greenland component of future sea level rise for the next few hundred years. To do this, the ‘Villach II temperature scenario’ is prescribed,output from a comprehensive mass balance model is used to drive a high-resolution 3-D thermomechanic model of the ice sheet.The mass balance model consists of two parts: the accumulation part is based on presently observed values and is forced by changes in mean anr tempeerature. The ablation model is based on the degree-day method and accounts for daily and annual temperature cycle, a different degree-day factor for ice and snow melting and superimposed ice formation. Under present-day climatic conditions, the following total mass balance results (in ice equivalent per years): 599.3 × 10⁹ m³ of accumulation, 281.7 × 10⁹m³ of runoff assuming a balanced budget, 317.6 × 10⁹m³ of iceberg calving. A 1K uniform warming is then calculated to increase the runoff by 119.5 × 10⁹ m³. Since accumulation also increases by 32 × 10⁹ m³, this leads to reduction of the total mass balance by 887.5 × 10⁹ m³ of ice, corresponding to a sea level rise of 0.22 mm/yr. For temperature increase larger than 2.7 K, runoff, exceeds accumulation, and if ice sheet dynamics were to remain unchanged, this would add an extra amount of 0.8 mmyr to the worl's oceans.Imposing the Villach II scenario (warming up to 4.23 K) and accumulating mass balance changes forward in time (static response) would then result in a global sea level rise of 7.1 cm by 2100 AD, but this figure may go up to as much as 40 cm per century in case the warming is doubled. In a subsequent dynamic model involving the ice flow, the ice sheet is found to produce a counteracting effect by dynamically producing steeper slopes at the margin, thereby reducing the area over which runoff can take place. This effect is particularly apparent in the northeastern part of the ice sheet, and is also more pronounced for the smaller temperature perturbations. Nevertheless, all these experiments certainly highlight the vulnerability of the Greenland ice sheet with respect to a climatic warming.     

Sea level budget over 2003–2008: A reevaluation from GRACE space gravimetry,satellite altimetry and Argo

From the IPCC 4th Assessment Report published in 2007, ocean thermal expansion contributed by ～ 50% to the 3.1 mm/yr observed global mean sea level rise during the 1993–2003 decade, the remaining rate of rise being essentially explained by shrinking of land ice. Recently published results suggest that since about 2003, ocean thermal expansion change, based on the newly deployed Argo system, is showing a plateau while sea level is still rising, although at a reduced rate (～ 2.5 mm/yr). Using space gravimetry observations from GRACE, we show that recent years sea level rise can be mostly explained by an increase of the mass of the oceans. Estimating GRACE-based ice sheet mass balance and using published estimates for glaciers melting, we further show that ocean mass increase since 2003 results by about half from an enhanced contribution of the polar ice sheets – compared to the previous decade – and half from mountain glaciers melting. Taking also into account the small GRACE-based contribution from continental waters (< 0.2 mm/yr), we find a total ocean mass contribution of ～ 2 mm/yr over 2003–2008. Such a value represents ～ 80% of the altimetry-based rate of sea level rise over that period. We next estimate the steric sea level (i.e., ocean thermal expansion plus salinity effects) contribution from: (1) the difference between altimetry-based sea level and ocean mass change and (2) Argo data. Inferred steric sea level rate from (1) (～ 0.3 mm/yr over 2003–2008) agrees well with the Argo-based value also estimated here (0.37 mm/yr over 2004–2008). Furthermore, the sea level budget approach presented in this study allows us to constrain independent estimates of the Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) correction applied to GRACE-based ocean and ice sheet mass changes, as well as of glaciers melting. Values for the GIA correction and glacier contribution needed to close the sea level budget and explain GRACE-based mass estimates over the recent years agree well with totally independent determinations.