Predicting the clustering of X-ray selected galaxy clusters in flux-limited surveys

We present a model to predict the clustering properties of X-ray selected clusters in flux-limited surveys. Our technique correctly accounts for past light-cone effects on the observed clustering and follows the non-linear evolution in redshift of the underlying dark matter correlation function and cluster bias factor. The conversion of the limiting flux of a survey into the corresponding minimum mass of the hosting dark matter haloes is obtained by using theoretical and empirical relations between mass, temperature and X-ray luminosity of galaxy clusters. Finally, our model is calibrated to reproduce the observed cluster counts adopting a temperature–luminosity relation moderately evolving with redshift. We apply our technique to three existing catalogues: the ROSAT Brightest Cluster Sample (BCS); the X-ray Brightest Abell-type Cluster sample (XBACs); and the ROSAT –ESO Flux-Limited X-ray sample (REFLEX). Moreover, we consider an example of possible future space missions with fainter limiting flux. In general, we find that the amplitude of the spatial correlation function is a decreasing function of the limiting flux and that the Einstein–de Sitter models always give smaller correlation amplitudes than open or flat models with low matter density parameter Ω_0m. In the case of the XBACs catalogue, the comparison with previous estimates of the observational spatial correlation shows that only the predictions of models with Ω_0m=0.3 are in good agreement with the data, while the Einstein–de Sitter models have too low a correlation strength. Finally, we use our technique to discuss the best strategy for future surveys. Our results show that, to study the clustering properties of X-ray selected clusters, the choice of a wide area catalogue, even with a brighter limiting flux, is preferable to a deeper, but smaller area, survey.     

Boltzmann approach to the large-angle cosmic X-ray background fluctuations

Large-angle fluctuations in the cosmic X-ray background are investigated by a new formalism with a simple model of the X-ray sources. Our method is formulated from the Boltzmann equation and a simple extension of the work by Lahav et al. to be applicable to a hyperbolic (open) universe. The low multipole fluctuations due to the source clustering are analysed in various cosmological models in both numerical and analytic ways. The fluctuations strongly depend on the X-ray source evolution model, as pointed out previously. It turns out that the nearby ( z  ≲ 0.1) sources are the dominant contributors to the large-angle fluctuations. If these nearby sources are removed in an observed X-ray map, the dipole (low multipole) moment of the fluctuation drastically decreases. In this case the Compton–Getting effect of an observer's motion can be a dominant contribution to the dipole fluctuation. This feature of fluctuation, relating to the matter power spectrum, is discussed.     

Power-spectrum normalization from the local abundance of rich clusters of galaxies

The number density of rich galaxy clusters still provides the most robust way of normalizing the power spectrum of dark matter perturbations on scales relevant to large-scale structure. We revisit this constraint in the light of several recent developments: (1) the availability of well-defined samples of local clusters with relatively accurate X-ray temperatures; (2) new theoretical mass functions for dark matter haloes, which provide a good fit to large numerical simulations; (3) more accurate mass–temperature relations from larger catalogues of hydrodynamical simulations; (4) the requirement to consider closed as well as open and flat cosmologies to obtain full multiparameter likelihood constraints for CMB and SNe studies. We present a new sample of clusters drawn from the literature and use this sample to obtain improved results on σ ₈, the normalization of the matter power spectrum on scales of 8  h ⁻¹ Mpc, as a function of the matter density and cosmological constant in a universe with general curvature. We discuss our differences with previous work, and the remaining major sources of uncertainty. Final results on the normalization, approximately independent of power spectrum shape, can be expressed as constraints on σ at an appropriate cluster normalization scale R _Cl. We provide fitting formulas for R _Cl and σ ( R _Cl) for general cosmologies, as well as for σ ₈ as a function of cosmology and shape parameter Γ. For flat models we find approximately σ ₈≃(0.495_−0.037^+0.034)Ω_M^−0.60 for Γ=0.23, where the error bar is dominated by uncertainty in the mass–temperature relation.     

Constraining the cosmological baryon density with X-ray clusters

We study the properties of X-ray galaxy clusters in four cold dark matter models with different baryon fractions Ω_BM, ranging from 5 to 20 per cent. By using an original three-dimensional hydrodynamic code based on the piecewise parabolic method, we run simulations on a box with a size of 64  h ⁻¹ Mpc and we identify the clusters by selecting the peaks in the X-ray luminosity field. We analyse these mock catalogues by computing the mass function, the luminosity function, the temperature distribution and the luminosity–temperature relation. By comparing the predictions of the different models to a series of recent observational results, we find that only the models with low baryonic content agree with the data, while models with larger baryon fraction are well outside the 1σ error bars. In particular, the analysis of the luminosity functions, both bolometric and in the energy band [0.5–2] keV, requires Ω_BM ≲ 0.05 when we fix the values h  = 0.5 and n  = 0.8 for the Hubble parameter and the primordial spectral index, respectively. Moreover we find that, independently of the cosmological scenario, all the considered quantities have very little redshift evolution, particularly between z  = 0.5 and 0.     

Batch discovery of nine z∼ 1 clusters using X-ray and K or R, z' images

We present the results of an initial search for clusters of galaxies at z ∼ 1 and above, using data from 2.9 square degrees of XMM–Newton images. By selecting weak potentially extended X-ray sources with faint or no identifications in deep, ground-based optical imaging, we have constructed a starting sample of 19 high-redshift cluster candidates. Near-IR and R , z ' imaging of these fields identified nine of them as high-redshift systems. Six of these were confirmed spectroscopically, three at z ∼ 1.0 and the other three in the  0.8 < z < 0.92  range. The remaining three systems have solid photometric evidence to be at   z _phot∼ 0.8, 1.0  and 1.3. The present sample significantly increases the number of such clusters. The measured density of z ≳ 1 clusters, after discarding 'low'-redshift systems at z ≲ 0.92 is about 1.7 deg⁻² (with 68 per cent confidence interval equal to [1.0, 2.9]) for   f_X ≳ 2.5  10⁻¹⁵ erg cm⁻² s⁻¹  ([0.5–2] keV) and this is a lower limit, having screened not all potential z ∼ 1 candidate clusters. Coordinates, X-ray measures and evidence for nine X-ray-selected high-redshift clusters is given.     

The phase diagram of the intergalactic medium and the entropy floor of groups and clusters: are clusters born warm?

We point out that two problems of observational cosmology, namely the facts (i) that ≳60 per cent of the baryonic content of the Universe is not observed at   z ∼ 0  and (ii) that the properties of small clusters do not agree with simple expectations, could be closely related. As shown by recent studies, the shock heating associated with the formation of large-scale structures heats the intergalactic medium (IGM) and leads to a 'warm IGM' component for the gas. In the same spirit, we suggest the intracluster medium (ICM) to be a mixture of galaxy-recycled, metal-enriched gas and intergalactic gas, shock heated by the collapsing much larger scales. This could be obtained through two processes: (1) the late infalling gas from the external warm IGM is efficiently mixed within the halo and brings some additional entropy, or (2) the shocks generated by larger non-linear scales are also present within clusters and can heat the ICM. We show that, if assumption (1) holds, the entropy brought by the warm IGM is sufficient to explain the observed properties of clusters, in particular the entropy floor and the   L _X– T   relation. On the other hand, we note briefly that scenario (2) would require a stronger shock heating because of the larger density of the ICM as compared with filaments. Although the efficiency of these two processes remains to be checked on a quantitative level, they have the advantage of dispensing with the need to invoke any strong preheating from supernovae or quasars (which has otherwise been introduced for the sole purpose of reproducing the behaviour of clusters). Matter ejection by galaxies is included in the present calculations and, consistently with the metal-enrichment requirements, is indeed shown to yield only a quite moderate entropy increase. Our scenario of clusters being 'born warm' can be checked through the predicted redshift evolution of the entropy floor.     

Influence of cluster environments on X-ray cluster morphology

We investigated the influence of environment on cluster morphology by examining the alignment of the cluster position angle with respect to the nearest neighbour cluster. The cluster position angle and ellipticity were measured using high spatial resolution X-ray data taken from the Chandra archive, while the nearest neighbour sample was extracted from the Abell cluster catalogue. We found high confidence for an alignment when neighbour distance (Dn) was less than  70  h ⁻¹  Mpc, while we found no significant variations of the confidence level at various values of Dn less than  70  h ⁻¹  Mpc.     

A case devoid of bias: Optical Redshift Survey voids versus IRAS voids

We present a comparison between the voids in two nearly all-sky redshift surveys: the Optical Redshift Survey (ORS) and the IRAS 1.2-Jy survey. While the galaxies in these surveys are selected differently and their populations are known to be biased relative to each other, the two void distributions are similar. We compare the spatial distribution of the two void populations and demonstrate the correlation between them. The voids also agree with regard to the overall void statistics a filling factor of 0.45 of the volume, an average void diameter and an average galaxy underdensity in the voids Our measurements of the underdensities of the voids in the two surveys enable us to estimate the relative bias in the voids between optical and IRAS samples. We find ( b _opt b _IRAS )^void1, showing that on average there is little or no biasing between the two void populations.     

The power spectrum of flux-limited X-ray galaxy cluster surveys

We compute the redshift space power spectrum of two X-ray cluster samples: the X-ray Brightest Abell Cluster Sample (XBACS) and the Brightest Cluster Sample (BCS) using the method developed by Feldman, Kaiser & Peacock. The power spectra derived for these samples are in agreement with determinations of other optical and X-ray cluster samples. For XBACS we find the largest power spectrum amplitude expected, given the high richness of this sample ( R ≥2) . In the range 0.05< k <0.4  h  Mpc⁻¹ the power spectrum shows a power-law behaviour P ( k )∝ k ⁿ with an index n ≃−1.2 . In a similar range, 0.04< k <0.3  h  Mpc⁻¹ , the BCS power spectrum has a smaller amplitude with index n ≃−1.0 . We do not find significant evidence for a peak at k ≃0.05  h  Mpc⁻¹ , suggesting that claims such of feature detections in some cluster samples could rely on artificial inhomogeneities of the data. We compare our results with power spectrum predictions derived by Moscardini et al. within current cosmological models (LCDM and OCDM). For XBACS we find that both models underestimate the amplitude of the power spectrum but for BCS there is reasonably good agreement at k ≳0.03  h  Mpc⁻¹ for both models.