Limestone Provenance in Roman Lime‐Volcanic Ash Mortars from the Villa dei Quintili,Rome

Roman mortars were collected from the Villa dei Quintili in Rome, an archaeological site consisting of numerous edifices from nine construction phases dating from the 2nd century A.D. to modern times. A multianalytical approach was used on 34 mortar samples to infer the evolution of production techniques over time and to identify the source area of calcareous raw materials used in the preparation of the lime. Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with an energy‐dispersive system, and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry were used to study the samples. The major and trace element data were compared with the compositions of two types of limestone samples (Calcare Massiccio and Calcare Maiolica) collected from the Cornicolani Mountains. The results suggest that the technological practices and the calcareous raw materials used for lime production remained unchanged over the time period considered (2nd century A.D. to 3rd century A.D.). The compositions of lime‐related particles in the mortars match those of Calcare Maiolica, which suggests its use as raw material for lime production. On the whole, the results are in agreement with data from existing literature regarding both the use by Roman builders of specific raw materials for the mortars’ production and the relative supply area.     

Geoarchaeological Investigations of Midden‐Formation Processes in the Early to Late Ceramic Neolithic Levels at Çatalhöyük,Turkey ca. 8550–8370 cal BP

Anthropogenic midden deposits are remarkably well preserved at the Neolithic settlement of Çatalhöyük and provide significant archaeological information on the types and nature of activities occurring at the site. To decipher their complex stratigraphy and to investigate formation processes, a combination of geoarchaeological techniques was used. Deposits were investigated from the early ceramic to late Neolithic levels, targeting continuous sequences to examine high resolution and broader scale changes in deposition. Thin‐section micromorphology combined with targeted phytolith and geochemical analyses indicates they are composed of a diverse range of ashes and other charred and siliceous plant materials, with inputs of decayed plants and organic matter, fecal waste, and sedimentary aggregates, each with diverse depositional pathways. Activities identified include in situ burning, with a range of different fuel types that may be associated with different activities. The complexity and heterogeneity of the midden deposits, and thus the necessity of employing an integrated microstratigraphic approach is demonstrated, as a prerequisite for cultural and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions.     

Pedo‐Geochemical Signatures of Archeological Sites in the Tapirapé‐Aquiri National Forest in Marabá, Amazonia,Brazil

The present study aims to interpret the occupation of terra firme (nonflooded uplands) archeological sites located at Tapirapé‐Aquiri National Forest in the Brazilian state of Pará, through an integrated analysis of pedological, archeological, and geochemical data. We focus on seven archaeological sites, selected among 22 identified in the region. Radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating indicate distinct periods of occupation over the past ∼6000 years, and the pedo‐geochemical data identify intra‐ and inter‐site differences in soil. Archaeological, chronometric, and pedo‐geochemical data provide a basis for the functional classification of archeological sites found in the region and help to identify specific human activity areas. The results lead us to infer that many of the archeological sites were the result of multiple occupations that left a persistent pedological signature on the landscape.     

OSL Age Determination of Archaeological Stone Structures Using Trapped Aeolian Sediments: A Case Study from the Negev Highlands,Israel

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating is widely applied to sediments in paleoenvironmental sciences. However, there are only limited examples determining the age of archaeological stone structures by OSL using dust deposits. The age of dust deposits associated with ancient buildings may be used to date the onset of settlement (sediment below structures), settlement activity (occupation layer), or the time after a settlement had been abandoned or destroyed (sediment between collapsed roofs and walls). In this study, OSL dating is applied to establish numerical dates for settlement structures situated in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Two archaeological sites are investigated to identify their occupation history, by dating nine samples of aeolian dust trapped within the remains of ancient buildings. The OSL dating technique is applied using coarse grain quartz and a standard single‐aliquot regenerative‐dose (SAR) protocol. It was possible to date the onset of sedimentation in a later phase of the human occupation or shortly after the sites were abandoned, to 3.7 ± 0.3 ka (Intermediate Bronze Age) at the central site and to 2.7 ± 0.2 ka (Iron Age) at the ephemeral site. These results are supported by archaeological evidence gained from pottery finds and the architecture of the ancient buildings.     

The paleoecology and archaeology of long‐term water storage in a Hohokam reservoir,southwestern Arizona,U.S.A.

Water storage reservoirs were an important feature of economic organization among ancient societies in the North American Southwest. Analyses of reservoir sediments from a Hohokam archaeological site in the Sonoran Desert yielded taxonomic species of ostracodes (microscopic crustaceans) and pollen grains that are indicative of a past water‐rich environment. The discovery that this reservoir was capable of storing water on a long‐term basis indicates that archaeological models for the region, which have relied on direct historic analogy, must be reexamined. In contrast to the local ethnographic record, paleoecological data generated by this study imply that the Hohokam could establish permanent desert settlements with water storage reservoirs away from perennial rivers and streams. Moreover, residents of these areas were geographically positioned to facilitate the circulation of marine resources (i.e., salt and shell) from the Gulf of California to territories within and beyond the Hohokam region. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Fish remains from the Formative Period (1000 BC–AD 400) of Lake Titicaca, Bolivia: Zooarchaeology and taphonomy

This paper presents a detailed zooarchaeological study of fish remains from the site of Kala Uyuni, Bolivia. The fish remains of 31 flotation samples from different archaeological contexts and dated to the Formative Period (1000 BC–AD 400) are described in terms of frequency, weight, taxa distribution, sizes, skeletal representations, and exposure to heat. The results confirm the importance of fish in the diet of the inhabitants of the site and provide insights about the particularities of their exploitation, consumption, and differential discard across the site throughout time. A strong decline in the procurement and consumption of fish is observed for the Late Formative which seems to be a consequence of both environmental and social processes.     

Comparison of the maritime Sites and Monuments Record with side‐scan sonar and diver surveys: A case study from Rathlin Island,Ireland

Rathlin Island, off the north coast of Ireland, has a history of settlement and seafaring from the Late Mesolithic period to the present day. The maritime Sites and Monuments Record (SMR) for Rathlin indicates many wrecking incidents. In 1999, a reconnaissance side‐scan sonar survey confirmed the presence of 46 targets of possible archaeological potential around Rathlin Island. Thirteen of these anomalies were positively identified as shipwrecks. Of the remaining 33 targets, nine were dived on in order to ground‐truth the geophysical data. A successful and rapid methodology of ground‐truthing side‐scan sonar data for archaeological purposes was developed. The results confirmed the presence of a Danforth Anchor at one site, while the remaining anomalies were identified as geological features. The results from the side‐scan survey and diver‐truthing exercise enhanced the existing maritime SMR. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Assessment of the physico-mechanical behaviour of gypsum-lime repair mortars as a function of curing time

Gypsum-based mortars were widely used during the Mudejar artistic period in Spain from the 12th to 16th century. During restoration works, compatibility between the new repair mortars and the original components is essential for an adequate intervention on the monument. The increasing interest of knowing the properties of the gypsum-lime-based mortars for restoration purposes justifies the research carried out. Different mortars compatible with traditional building materials were elaborated by varying the binder proportions, the type of aggregates, the binder/aggregate ratios and the curing time. The main goal of this paper is to characterize the mechanical behaviour and the pore structure of the mortars as a function of curing time. The influence between the different variables used to prepare the mortars and the development of the carbonation process over time is also considered. Mechanical strength and porosity measurements as well as X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis were performed after curing times of 1, 28 and 90 days. The results obtained confirmed a progressive increase in mechanical strength linked to the carbonation of the mortars prepared. Less lime binder and also aggregate contents showed the highest rise in strength over time, related to the highest initial porosity which favoured the carbon dioxide flow. The use of siliceous aggregates (GL-QS mortars) obtained the best results in the development of physico-mechanical properties over curing time. The knowledge obtained from the studied mortars provides practical information to establish a suitable mortar mixture for restoration works on historic buildings and modern architecture where gypsum-lime-based mortars are used.     

High‐resolution stratigraphy of Scandinavian coastal archaeological settlements: the case of Håkonshella,W Norway

The stratigraphy of Scandinavian open‐air archaeological settlements is usually characterized as homogeneous, highly enriched in decomposing organic matter and poor in biogenic carbonates such as shells or bones. As a result, stratigraphies are often difficult to read in the field and settlement sequences may pass unnoticed by archaeologists. Here we show how the integration of bulk analyses, soil micromorphology, X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning and multivariate statistics can help in overcoming such limitations. We use the case study of Håkonshella 8, a Mesolithic hunter‐fisher‐gatherer settlement located in Bergen (W Norway). Fluctuations in the organic matter content, geochemical proxies (mainly P, Ga, Ti and the Si/Al ratio) and redoximorphic features highlight four cycles of site occupation and abandonment in an otherwise massive anthropogenic deposit. Following these settlement sequences, the site was covered by colluvium from nearby slopes over which a waterlogged soil formed. The approach used in Håkonshella has the potential to improve our capacity to interpret organically enriched anthropic deposits formed in coastal Scandinavia and in similar climatic regions.     

High‐Precision Sr‐Nd‐Hf‐Pb Isotopic Composition of Chinese Geological Standard Glass Reference Materials CGSG‐1, CGSG‐2, CGSG‐4 and CGSG‐5 by MC‐ICP‐MS and TIMS

To assess the homogeneity of and provide the first Sr‐Nd‐Hf‐Pb isotopic reference values for the Chinese Geological Standard Glasses CGSG‐1, CGSG‐2, CGSG‐4 and CGSG‐5, we measured these isotopes in several measurement sessions over the course of nearly 3 years. The results were obtained by high‐precision MC‐ICP‐MS and TIMS. Our investigation indicates that these CGSG glass reference materials are homogenous with regard to Sr‐Nd‐Hf‐Pb isotopic distribution and are therefore suitable geochemical materials for Sr‐Nd‐Hf‐Pb isotope measurements. Clear differences in Sr‐Nd‐Hf‐Pb isotopic composition were observed between the glasses and the original powdered rock reference materials (CGSG‐2 and GSR‐7, and especially CGSG‐5 and GSR‐2) because of flux addition during preparation of the glasses. The new Sr‐Nd‐Hf‐Pb isotope data provided here might be useful to the geochemical community for in situ and bulk analysis.     

Assessment of Nanosecond Laser Ablation Multi‐Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma‐Mass Spectrometry for Pb and Sr Isotopic Determination in Archaeological Glass: Mass Bias Correction Strategies and Results for Corning Glass Reference Materials

This work presents an evaluation of various methods for in situ high‐precision Sr and Pb isotopic determination in archaeological glass (containing 100–500 μg g^?1 target element) by nanosecond laser ablation multi‐collector‐inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometry (ns‐LA‐MC‐ICP‐MS). A set of four soda‐lime silicate glasses, Corning A–D, mimicking the composition of archaeological glass and produced by the Corning Museum of Glass (Corning, New York, USA), were investigated as candidates for matrix‐matched reference materials for use in the analysis of archaeological glass. Common geological reference materials with known isotopic compositions (USGS basalt glasses BHVO‐2G, GSE‐1G and NKT‐1G, soda‐lime silicate glass NIST SRM 610 and several archaeological glass samples with known Sr isotopic composition) were used to evaluate the ns‐LA‐MC‐ICP‐MS analytical procedures. When available, ns‐LA‐MC‐ICP‐MS results for the Corning glasses are reported. These were found to be in good agreement with results obtained via pneumatic nebulisation (pn) MC‐ICP‐MS after digestion of the glass matrix and target element isolation. The presence of potential spectral interference from doubly charged rare earth element (REE) ions affecting Sr isotopic determination was investigated by admixing Er and Yb aerosols by means of pneumatic nebulisation into the gas flow from the laser ablation system. It was shown that doubly charged REE ions affect the Sr isotope ratios, but that this could be circumvented by operating the instrument at higher mass resolution. Multiple strategies to correct for instrumental mass discrimination in ns‐LA‐MC‐ICP‐MS and the effects of relevant interferences were evaluated. Application of common glass reference materials with basaltic matrices for correction of ns‐LA‐MC‐ICP‐MS isotope data of archaeological glasses results in inaccurate Pb isotope ratios, rendering application of matrix‐matched reference materials indispensable. Correction for instrumental mass discrimination using the exponential law, with the application of Tl as an internal isotopic standard element introduced by pneumatic nebulisation and Corning D as bracketing isotopic calibrator, provided the most accurate results for Pb isotope ratio measurements in archaeological glass. Mass bias correction relying on the power law, combined with intra‐element internal correction, assuming a constant ⁸⁸Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio, yielded the most accurate results for ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr determination in archaeological glasses     

Infrared reflection spectrometry analysis as a non‐destructive method of characterizing minerals and stone materials in geoarchaeological and archaeometric applications

The purpose of this paper is to show the benefits and applications of using mid and far infrared reflection spectrometry (IRS) in the analysis of archaeological materials. Infrared spectral databases do not yet exist for rocks and principal minerals. In support of IRS techniques, a catalogue and new spectral database have been created with over 500 infrared reflection spectra in mid and far ranges from more than 250 different archaeological minerals and stone materials. The reflection spectrum serves as a “fingerprint” of all these materials. This new, non‐destructive method is useful for spectrometric identification and crystal chemical characterization of many rocks and minerals commonly found in archaeological contexts. Three brief examples of IRS analysis of archaeological materials are presented as test cases. It is suggested that IRS could and should become a routine approach in geoarchaeology and archaeometry for identification and provenance studies. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

First Multi‐Isotopic (Pb‐Nd‐Sr‐Zn‐Cu‐Fe) Characterisation of Dust Reference Materials (ATD and BCR‐723): A Multi‐Column Chromatographic Method Optimised to Trace Mineral and Anthropogenic Dust Sources

Atmospheric dust is an integral component of the Earth system with major implications for the climate, biosphere and public health. In this context, identifying and quantifying the provenance and the processes generating the various types of dust found in the atmosphere is paramount. Isotopic signatures of Pb, Nd, Sr, Zn, Cu and Fe are commonly used as sensitive geochemical tracers. However, their combined use is limited by the lack of (a) a dedicated chromatographic protocol to separate the six elements of interest for low‐mass samples and (b) specific reference materials for dust. Indeed, our work shows that USGS rock reference materials BHVO‐2, AGV‐2 and G‐2 are not applicable as substitute reference materials for dust. We characterised the isotopic signatures of these six elements in dust reference materials ATD and BCR‐723, representatives of natural and urban environments, respectively. To achieve this, we developed a specific procedure for dust, applicable in the 4–25 mg mass range, to separate the six elements using a multi‐column ion‐exchange chromatographic method and MC‐ICP‐MS measurements.     

Masters of mudbrick: Geoarchaeological analysis of Iron Age earthen public buildings at Ashdod-Yam (Israel)

Excavations at Ashdod-Yam exposed a fortification system that features a massive mudbrick wall with large earthen ramparts laid on either side. This fortified horseshoe-shaped enclosure once surrounded what was likely a human-made harbor and an adjacent acropolis with complex earthen architecture, constructed and active during Iron Age IIB–C (eighth–seventh centuries B.C.E.). These Iron Age public structures are at the center of the current research. In this paper, we present the geoarchaeological analyses of Ashdod-Yam's earthen architecture. We applied a multidisciplinary methodology to new evidence for mudbrick manufacture with the goal of understanding the relationship between governing bodies and craftsmen. The analyses combine X-ray fluorescence, loss on ignition, environmental scanning electron microscopy, and thin-section petrography to investigate raw material procurement, manufacturing choices, and labor organization at Ashdod-Yam during Iron IIB–C. Construction techniques and the standardization of the mudbrick recipe point to a local enterprise regarding the site's public earthen architecture. Furthermore, the degree of labor organization must have been closely observed and supervised by a central political power. Thus, it is argued here that construction and maintenance of the site was carried out by the kingdom of Ashdod, either as a part of its own local initiative or on behalf of the Neo-Assyrian empire.     

Geological processes and site structure: Assessing integrity at a Late Paleolithic open‐air site in northern France

The difficulty of reading the archaeological record of caves and rock shelters is becoming increasingly obvious to Paleolithic researchers. Although some open‐air sites are thought to avoid such taphonomic complications, interpreting their archaeological record is less straightforward than assumed. Postdepositional processes may obscure structure in configurations of features and artifacts. Recently developed techniques for the excavation and analysis of Paleolithic cave sites can be applied to open‐air sites before spatial patterning is interpreted for inferences about prehistoric social organization. Analysis of the orientation of elongated artifacts on the occupation surface of the late Upper Paleolithic site of Verberie, France, is employed for evaluation of the integrity of site structure. Results indicate spatial structure largely undisturbed by geological processes. The lack of disturbance in the configuration of archaeological materials allows for a behavioral interpretation of those remains. The proposition that Verberie was a hunting campsite for initial carcass processing is supported. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

“The probable industrial origin of archaeological daub at an Iron Age site in northeast Thailand” (Parr and Boyd, 2002): A comment on the inappropriate application of geophysical and geochemical techniques to an archaeological question

Parr and Boyd (2002) used colorimetric analysis in combination with geophysical and geochemical techniques to estimate firing temperatures for archaeological daub from an Iron Age site in Thailand. They suggest that the daub was fired at high temperatures and, therefore, is indicative of kiln utilization and increased industrialization during that period in Thailand. They argue that the adoption of a multimethod analytical approach in which the combination of data derived from ICP‐MS, X‐ray diffraction, and magnetic susceptibility analyses of daub samples, coupled with microscopic and macroscopic examination of samples, enhances the accuracy of their interpretations. While they should be commended for attempting to substantiate their claims using many geophysical and geochemical techniques, their arguments are flawed by the misapplication of the techniques described and/or over‐interpretation of the data generated by such techniques. Therefore, Parr and Boyd's (2002:285) point about methodology (“that the combined interpretation of independent measures provides a better estimate of the original firing temperatures of the archaeological material than has hitherto been possible”) is made redundant by the lack of scientific rigor applied to the independent measures used for this study. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Holocene shallowing‐upward parasequence of north‐west Andros Island,Bahamas

Many pre‐Mesozoic records of Earth history are derived from shallow water carbonates deposited on continental shelves. While these carbonates contain geochemical proxy records of climate change, it is the stratal architecture of layered carbonate units that often is used to build age models based on the idea that periodic astronomical forcing of sea‐level controls the layering. Reliable age models are crucial to any interpretation of rates and durations of environmental change, but the physical processes that actually control this stratal architecture in shallow water carbonates are controversial. In particular, are upward‐shallowing stacks of carbonate beds bounded by flooding surfaces (‘parasequences’) truly a record of relative sea‐level change? The purpose of this study is to examine a tidal flat that is actively accumulating carbonate stratigraphy, and to determine the relative importance of tidal channel migration (poorly known, but investigated here) and Holocene sea‐level rise (well‐known) in controlling post‐glacial parasequence architecture. This work represents a field study of peritidal carbonate accumulation at Triple Goose Creek, north‐west Andros Island. By integrating surface facies maps with differential global positioning system topographic surveys, a quantitative relationship between facies and elevation is derived. Sedimentary facies are sensitive to elevation changes as small as 5 cm, and are responding to both internal (distance to nearest tidal channel) and external (sea‐level rise) controls. The surface maps also are integrated with 187 sediment cores that each span the entire Holocene succession. While flooding of the Triple Goose Creek area should have occurred by ca 4500 years ago, preservation of Holocene sediment did not begin until 1200 years ago. The tidal channels are shown to be stationary, or to migrate sluggishly at up to 6 cm per year. Therefore, while the location of tidal channels is responsible for the modern mosaic of surface facies, these facies and the channels that control them have not migrated substantially during the ca 1200 years of sediment accumulation at Triple Goose Creek. Once the region was channellized, vertical and lateral shifts in facies, such as the landward retreating shoreline, expanding mangrove ponds and seaward advancing inland algal marsh, are driven by changes in relative sea‐level and sediment supply, not migrating channels. While stratigraphic columns look different depending on the distance to the nearest tidal channel, the overall parasequence architecture everywhere at Triple Goose Creek records an upward‐shallowing trend controlled by the infilling of accommodation space generated by post‐glacial sea‐level rise.     

FxJj43: A window into a 1.5‐million‐year‐old palaeolandscape in the Okote Member of the Koobi Fora Formation,northern Kenya

FxJj43 differs from most other archaeological sites preserved in the Okote Member of the Koobi Fora Formation in ways that make it especially suited to the problem of clarifying the behavioral information encapsulated in fine time‐lines. At this site in northern Kenya, a continuous strip of outcrops, preserving a set of interlocking landforms, can be traced around the modern erosion front for more than half a kilometer. The characteristics and three‐dimensional geometries of the beds making up these outcrops show that they have preserved the southern bank, levee, and floodplain of a westerly flowing sandy channel. Both stone tools and animal bones are strewn across the eroding surfaces of these outcrops, and excavations show that they are derived from a narrow stratigraphic horizon immediately overlying the volcanic ash at the base of the sequence. The blue tuff, and the archaeological horizon that overlies it, have been dated using the ⁴⁰Ar‐³⁹Ar method on single crystals of alkali feldspar. Although there is no direct measure of how long it took the archaeological horizon to accumulate, it probably accumulated over a time span of 10²–10³ years. Thus the locality may be used to test the proposition that the analysis of archaeological debris from fine‐time lines will help to resolve ambiguities in the interpretation of early Pleistocene archaeological assemblages. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Hunter‐gatherer response to late Holocene climatic variability in northern and central Australia

Sum probability analysis of 1275 radiometric ages from 608 archaeological sites across northern and central Australia demonstrates a changing archaeological signature that can be closely correlated with climate variability over the last 2 ka. Results reveal a marked increase in archaeological records across northern and central Australia over the last 2 ka, with notable declines in western and northern Australia between ca. AD 700 and 1000 and post‐AD 1500 – two periods broadly coeval with the Medieval Climatic Anomaly and the Little Ice Age as they have been documented in the Asia–Pacific region. Latitudinal and longitudinal analysis of the dataset suggests the increase in archaeological footprint was continent wide, while the declines were greatest from 9 to 20° S, 110 to 135° E and 143 to 150° E. The change in the archaeological data suggests that, combined with an increase in population over the late Holocene, a disruption or reorganisation of pre‐European resource systems occurred across Australia between ca. AD 700 and 1000 and post‐AD 1500. These archaeological responses can be broadly correlated with transitions of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) mean state on a multi‐decadal to centennial timescale. The latter involve a shift towards the La Niña‐like mean state with wetter conditions in the Australian region between AD 700 and 1150. A transition period in ENSO mean state occurred across Australia during AD 1150–1300, with persistent El Niño‐like and drier conditions to ca. AD 1500, and increasing ENSO variability post‐AD 1500 to the present. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Human‐caused stratigraphic mixing of a coastal Hawaiian midden during prehistory: Implications for interpreting cultural deposits

Archaeologists rely on the spatial and temporal distribution of artifacts and other site‐based materials to understand the stratigraphic integrity of the matrix in which remains are embedded. Although they are aware of taphonomic and site formation processes that can cause post‐depositional movement of objects, misinterpretation can occur. We used high‐precision ²³⁰Th dating of branch corals found throughout cultural layers of a coastal Hawaiian midden to identify the effects of post‐depositional disturbances to the archaeological record. Fifteen corals distributed in three cultural layers of a Mo'omomi bay site on west Moloka'i, Hawaiian Islands, were ²³⁰Th dated between A.D. 1513 and A.D. 1623. Even though the cultural layers appeared visually intact, the positions of the dated coral samples indicate stratigraphic mixing as there is no positive age–depth correlation. Consequently, all cultural layers should be considered one analytical unit for analysis of contents. This study is applicable to other Pacific archaeological sites, especially throughout Hawaii and East Polynesia generally, that have well‐preserved branch coral for ²³⁰Th dating. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.