Inversion of the F2 layer critical frequency with the solar zenith angle

Normalization of the F2 layer critical frequency is put forward with a model related to the solar zenith angle at the time of observation and its local noon value. The method implies a physically based replacement of variable representing one of the key controlling parameters of the modern empirical ionospheric models. The inversion of critical frequency is analyzed with the hourly values of foF2 of seven ionospheric stations for 2000–2006 (half the solar activity cycle). The normalized critical frequency fnF2 reveals an improved correlation between the data of different stations and improved inter-seasonal correlation of the data of a particular station as compared with the initial foF2 values. A correlation radius in summer is two times greater for normalized critical frequency than for observations. The analytical model of expansion of the diurnal variation of critical frequency with four hourly values at 00, 06, 12 and 18 h of local time exhibits improved statistical features of normalized critical frequency as compared with observed critical frequency.     

太阳天顶角对太湖恰在水面下辐照度比影响的定量分析

恰在水面下辐照度比变化与吸收系数、散射系数和太阳天顶角存在着密切的关系,而太阳天顶角对太湖恰在水面下辐照度比的定量影响程度尚不明确.为此,本文基于2010年5月太湖27个样点的水体光学参数和理论数值模拟,对太湖水体的情况进行研究.理论数值模拟结果表明:当太阳天顶角分别在0°～25°和70°～89°区间内变化时,对恰在水面下辐照度比增幅影响较小,增幅相差不到10%;而当太阳天顶角在30°～70°之间时,对辐照度比增幅影响很大,增幅为13.13%～52.19%.同时,利用实测数据对理论结果进行线性相关验证表明,此数值研究整体上符合太湖的实际情况.因此,对水体光学特性以及光对水生生态系统驱动作用研究的时候,应充分考虑太阳天顶角的影响.     

A comparative study of the sunrise and sunset effects on the integrated field intensity of VLF atmospherics

A comparative study is made of the stepped structure of atmospherics during sunrise and sunset hours at three harmonically related frequencies in the VLF band, observed at the coast of the Bay of Bengal. The occurrences of the steps, their duration, time sequence and amplitudes are critically examined. Our analysis reveals that the start times of the third and second steps of the sunrise effect are always before ground sunrise, while the start of the main step is distributed on both sides of it. During sunset hours, the onset time of the main step is before the local ground sunset, but for the second and third steps, the onset times are after that. The results are interpreted by considering the multi-hop propagation as well as the distributed noise sources surrounding the observing site.     

Variations in the index of refraction of the atmosphere

Summary This paper discusses the atmospheric refractive index (a) throughout the year at the surface of the earth and (b) for each season in various air masses. Mean monthly or seasonal values, respectively, are employed.The annual variation in the refractive index at the earth's surface is examined by noting the contributions of the optical and the water vapor terms. The former exhibits a sinusoidal variation with a period of a year, having a maximum in winter and a minimum during summer. The amplitude of the cycle is latitude dependent, appearing greater in polar than in tropical regions. The magnitude of the water vapor term is more strongly dependent upon both season and latitude. Excepting areas where the dew point changes little from month to month, the water vapor term attains a single yearly maximum at about mid July.Graphs of the variation of refiactive index with altitude for the major air masses are included. Highest values of the index up to a height of 6 km are found in tropical maritime and monsoon air masses; lowest values, in arctic air masses. The rate of decrease of refractive index with height is usually quite different for diverse air masses. From the surface to an altitude of 6 km, the most constant rate of decrease with altitude, considering all air mass types, was found in the superior air mass.     

Latitudinal dependence of helio/geophysical effects on the solar radiation input to the lower atmosphere

The relationships between the solar radiation input to the lower atmosphere at higher and middle latitudes and different phenomena related to solar activity have been studied at the network of actinometric stations of Russia. It was shown that the effects of galactic cosmic ray variations and solar flares on the half-yearly sums of global radiation strongly depend on latitude, with a negative correlation being observed in the high-latitudinal belt and a positive one at lower latitudes. The change of the correlation sign was found to take place at the latitude ∼57°. Auroral phenomena are likely to affect the radiation fluxes only in the high-latitude (auroral) region. The effects observed seem to be due to the latitudinal dependence of cloud cover variations associated with the helio/geophysical phenomena under study.     

基于闪电双极性窄脉冲事件波形观测日出日落电离层D层变化

利用闪电作为辐射源来探测电离层D层是近年来国外学者研究的热点.本文基于江淮流域六站同步闪电观测站网,实现了一种利用闪电双极性窄脉冲事件（Narrow Bipolar Events,NBE）来探测电离层D层等效高度的方法.基于此方法,对两次分别发生在日出和日落阶段的雷暴分析结果显示,上述两个阶段D层反射高度变化特征呈现显著的不对称性：日出期间D层反射高度随时间线性降低速率为5.9 km/h;而日落期间D层反射高度随时间线性递增速率为8.6 km/h.综合日间太阳耀斑期间D层反射高度剧烈波动的观测事实,与日出、日落期间D层特征变化,结果表明太阳辐射电离中性大气分子的电子生成机制在日间D层电子密度变化中占主导地位.本文结果展现了利用NBE事件监测电离层D层变化特征的可行性,这一方法与基于地闪回击波形的D层探测方法结合在一起,有望把现有具有闪电事件定位和电磁波波形记录能力的闪电观测站网扩展为实时对电离层D层时空变化监测的网络.

     

Ejection and descent of matter in the solar atmosphere

The descent and ejection of matter in the solar atmosphere observed in the CaII 8498-Å line have been studied. In the NOAA active region no. 10 792 on July 30, 2005 before the flare, the dense cold gas cloud descended with a ray velocity of ～8 km/s and then ascended in the impulsive phase. The plasma ascended with an acceleration reaching 0.4 km/s² in the flare maximum. The acceleration of the matter likely continued after the flare maximum, because an acceleration of higher than 0.5 km/s² was required for the appearance of the ejection at the edge of the occulting disk of the LASCO C2 coronagraph at 0557 UT. The descent of the matter resulting in the local heating of the chromosphere was also observed in the NOAA active region no. 10656 on August 9, 2004 before the flare. The maximum descent velocity was no more than 24.7 km/s.     

Scattering of solar radiation by aerosol particulates in the atmosphere: a theoretical approach validated with Pre-INDOEX

A theoretical model based on some physical assumptions has been integrated to study the scattering of solar radiation by aerosol particulates of any size present in the atmosphere. Using this model, which incorporates multiple scattering, scattered fluxes of radiation with varying optical depths and also the optical depth versus wavelengths are computed. The present results are found to be in close agreement with the observations of the Pre-Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) 1996. This provides evidence of the direct effect of aerosol particulates on the radiative forcing of the atmosphere.     

Solar faculae and waves propagating in the solar atmosphere

Solar faculae are among the most common manifestations of solar activity and can play an important role in the energy transfer from the lower solar atmosphere into the corona. However, the mechanisms by which energy is transferred remain insufficiently studied. Our work is based on observational data obtained with the AST telescope of the Sayan solar observatory. Simultaneous observations were performed in the Hα 6563 Å and FeI 6569 Å, BaII 4554 Å and FeI 4551.6 Å, and CaII 8542 Å and FeI 8538 Å pairs of spectral lines. The studies indicated that the spectral composition of the line-of-sight (LOS) velocity oscillations in faculae is inhomogeneous and is affected by the chromospheric network’s structural elements. The possible presence of short and low magnetic loops in the facula region makes it difficult to determine the unambiguous phase relations between chromospheric and photospheric oscillations. The LOS velocity oscillation signals registered at the chromospheric level both lead and lag behind the signals registered at the photospheric level. At the same time, signs of propagating waves are evidently registered in the chromosphere of individual faculae.     

Variations of solar radiation input to the lower atmosphere associated with different helio/geophysical factors

The influence of helio/geophysical factors on the solar energy input to the lower atmosphere has been studied at the network of actinometric stations of Russia in different latitudinal belts. It was found that there are appreciable changes in the half-yearly values of total radiation associated with galactic cosmic ray (GCR) variations in the 11-yr solar cycle, the increase of GCR flux being accompanied by a decrease of the total radiation at higher latitudes and by its increase at lower latitudes. Auroral phenomena and solar flare activity are likely to affect the solar radiation input to the high-latitudinal belt together with GCR variations, the increase of both these factors resulting in the decrease of total radiation. The changes found in the total radiation fluxes in the lower atmosphere seem to be related to the cloud cover variations associated with the solar and geophysical phenomena under study. The variations of the solar radiation input in the 11-yr-cycle amounting to ±4–6% may be an important factor affecting tropospheric dynamics.     

Interpretation of first arrival travel times in seismic refraction work

The necessary condition for the seismic refraction method to succeed is that the refracted first arrivals from each layer in a multilayered earth system should be detected on a seismogram as first arrivals, and this is possible only when velocities of all underlying layers are successively greater. The usual procedure to interpret the refraction travel times is to fit such a data set with several intersecting straight lines by employing a visual technique which may lead to errors of subjective judgment, as the velocity model depends on the selection of various line segments through the data. To remove the visual fit we propose here a layer stripping method based on minimum intercept time, apparent velocity, rms residual, and maximum data points by least-squares fitting to yield several intersecting straight lines. Once data are segmented out, the conventional equations can be used to determine the velocity structure.     

广角地震处理方法研究进展

广角地震可以在常规地震所无法解决的无记录和差记录区进行,完成地壳深部的调查研究．迄今已完成几万公里的测线任务．为了更好地处理广角地震数据,应采用一些特殊的处理手段,获取高质量的成像剖面,更好地服务于勘探开发．本文在介绍广角地震国内外发展现状的基础上,着重阐述了广角反射、折射中一些关键技术及存在的问题,并做了展望．     

Effect of atmospheric gases,surface albedo and cloud overlap on the absorbed solar radiation

Recent studies have provided new evidence that models may systematically underestimate cloud solar absorption compared to observations. This study extends previous work on this “absorption anomaly” by using observational data together with solar radiative transfer parameterisations to calculate f_s (the ratio of surface and top of the atmosphere net cloud forcings) and its latitudinal variation for a range of cloud types. Principally, it is found that (a) the zonal mean behaviour of f_s varies substantially with cloud type, with the highest values obtained for low clouds; (b) gaseous absorption and scattering can radically alter the pattern of the variation of f_s with latitude, but gaseous effects cannot in general raise f_s to the level of around 1.5 as recently determined; (c) the importance of the gaseous contribution to the atmospheric ASR is such that whilst f_s rises with surface albedo, the net cloud contribution to the atmospheric ASR falls; (d) the assumed form of the degree of cloud overlap in the model can substantially affect the cloud contribution to the atmospheric ASR whilst leaving the parameter f_s largely unaffected; (e) even large uncertainties in the observed optical depths alone cannot account for discrepancies apparent between modelled and newly observed cloud solar absorption. It is concluded that the main source of the anomaly may derive from the considerable uncertainties regarding impure droplet microphysics rather than, or together with, uncertainties in macroscopic quantities. Further, variable surface albedos and gaseous effects may limit the use of contemporaneous satellite and ground-based measurements to infer the cloud solar absorption from the parameter f_s.     

Satellite solar occultation sounding of the middle atmosphere

This paper discusses the principles, achievements, and prospects for satellite solar occultation sounding of the middle atmosphere. Advantages, disadvantages, and spatial and temporal coverage capabilities are described. Progress over the past 15 years is reviewed, and results from a recent satellite aerosol experiment are presented. Questions with regard to Doppler shift, atmosphric refraction, instrument pointing, pressure sensing, and measurement of diurnally active species are addressed. Two experiments now orbiting on the Nimbus-7 and AEM-B satellites, and approved experiments under development for future flights on Spacelab and the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, are also described. In some cases more than one experiment is scheduled to be flown on the same spacecraft, and the advantages and synergistic effects of these applications are discussed.     

Instability of a thin magnetic tube in the solar atmosphere

Abstract

The static equilibrium of a thin vertical magnetic tube embedded in the solar atmosphere is shown to be dynamically unstable against the fundamental mode of perturbation having no nodes in the vertical displacement. The instability has its origin in the convection zone, and the eigenfunction is extended further up in the stable upper layers by the magnetic field which guides the displacement mainly in the longitudinal direction. It is suggested that the downdraft observed in the solar network structure is a finite amplitude consequence of this instability. The overtone modes are found to be stable.     

Cotton canopy reflectance under variable solar zenith angles: Implications of use in evapotranspiration models

Evapotranspiration (ET) is an important parameter in hydrologic processes and modelling. In agricultural watersheds with competing uses of fresh water including irrigated agriculture, estimating crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) accurately is critical for improving irrigation system and basin water management. The use of remote sensing-based basal crop coefficients is becoming a common method for estimating crop evapotranspiration for multiple crops over large areas. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), based on reflectance in the red and near-infrared bands, are commonly used for this purpose. In this paper, we examine the effects of row crop orientation and soil background darkening due to shading and soil surface wetness on these two vegetation indices through modelling, coupled with a field experiment where canopy reflectance of a cotton crop at different solar zenith angles, was measured with a portable radiometer. The results show that the NDVI is significantly more affected than the SAVI by background shading and soil surface wetness, especially in north–south oriented rows at higher latitudes and could lead to a potential overestimation of crop evapotranspiration and irrigation water demand if used for basal crop coefficient estimation. Relationships between the analysed vegetation indices and canopy biophysical parameters such as crop height, fraction of cover and leaf area index also were developed for both indices.     

General circulation of the solar atmosphere from observational evidence

Summary One of the main results of the rotating cylinder experiments ofFultz andHide is that the general flow regime in them is essentially determined by the ratio of the angular velocity of the fluid motions (relative to the cylinder) to that of the cylinder itself. Extending these results to the atmosphere of the sun, leads to the hypothesis that the layer in which spots are imbedded should exhibit a non-axially symmetric pattern, of theRossby type.The fluid motions, characteristic of such a general circulation pattern, are mainly along spherical surfaces, and have a wavelike (eddy) appearance similar to the planetary waves in the upper troposphere of the terrestrial atmosphere. These eddies transport momentum along these spherical surfaces from regions of relatively lower angular velocity to regions of higher velocity. Tracers (e.g., sunspots) imbedded is such a flow would show a correlation between their proper motions in latitude and longitude, such that spots moving equatorward will tend to have larger longitudinal motions (toward the west limb), and vice versa.Analysis of ten years (1935 to 1944) of Greenwich spot data shows a consistent, and (statistically) very significant correlation of spot group proper motions, in the proper sense. These results provide strong support for the existence of large-scale waves which are some modest fraction of the solar circumference, but larger than the sunspot groups. Moreover, these waves transport angular momentum (up the gradient of angular velocity) toward the equatorial regions from higher latitudes across at least the entire sunspot zone. It is not known, however, whether these eddies are the primary (or only) source of momentum to maintain the equatorial acceleration of the sun. However, if this source were shut off, and all other processes continued unabated, this layer of the sun between latitudes ±20° would reach solid rotation in about 51/2 rotations.Because this eddy transport of momentum is counter to the gradient of angular velocity, there is an implied transformation of the kinetic energy of the eddies into the kinetic energy of the mean east-west flow. Of possibly even more interest, however, might be the possibility of transfers of kinetic energy between eddies of all different scale sizes extending down the entire spectrum to include sunspot groups and the spots themselves. Moreover, some eddy size(s) in this layer is likely to be primarily responsible for a conversion of potential to kinetic energy.A result of subsidiary interest is the systematically higher value of solar rotation (at all latitudes) derivable from this data, which includes all spots which survive for at least two days. In contrast to the work of previous authors who used only long-lived spots, the result obtained when many small spots are used, indicates perhaps a variation of the rotation rate with height in the solar atmosphere.The results provide no evidence to indicate the existence of significant meridional circulations (latitudinal driffs).     

On the evaluation of solar radiation in Egypt

Summary A study of the depletion of solar radiation at Helwan Observatory has shown, for Egypt, that:a) Diffuse reflexion and absorption by suspended particles in the atmosphere constitute about 20 percent of the total depletion;b) Absorption by water vapour is the only factor that should be evaluated at any place to give an estimation of the solar radiation received at that place. This can be obtained either from the mean values of the surface water vapour pressure which have been considered in detail, or, for individual cases, from spectroscopic measurements of the precipitable water content whose daily variations have been studied.     

近50年中国东南地区地面太阳辐射变化对气温变化的影响

太阳是地球表层的最终能量来源,地面太阳辐射的变化会深刻影响地球的气候变化.本文利用中国东南地区14个气象台站1961～2008年总辐射和气温的同步观测资料,分析了近50年该地区地面太阳辐射的变化对气温变化的可能影响.结果表明,1961～1989年期间,该地区的地面太阳辐射显著减弱,所引起的气温下降超过了其他因素的增温效...