Cracking risk of partially saturated porous media—Part I: Microporoelasticity model

Drying of deformable porous media results in their shrinkage, and it may cause cracking provided that shrinkage deformations are hindered by kinematic constraints. This is the motivation to develop a thermodynamics‐based microporoelasticity model for the assessment of cracking risk in partially saturated porous geomaterials. The study refers to 3D representative volume elements of porous media, including a two‐scale double‐porosity material with a pore network comprising (at the mesoscale) 3D mesocracks in the form of oblate spheroids, and (at the microscale) spherical micropores of different sizes. Surface tensions prevailing in all interfaces between solid, liquid, and gaseous matters are taken into account. To establish a thermodynamics‐based crack propagation criterion for a two‐scale double‐porosity material, the potential energy of the solid is derived, accounting—in particular—for mesocrack geometry changes (main original contribution) and for effective micropore pressures, which depend (due to surface tensions) on the pore radius. Differentiating the potential energy with respect to crack density parameter yields the thermodynamical driving force for crack propagation, which is shown to be governed by an effective macrostrain. It is found that drying‐related stresses in partially saturated mesocracks reduce the cracking risk. The drying‐related effective underpressures in spherical micropores, in turn, result in a tensile eigenstress of the matrix in which the mesocracks are embedded. This way, micropores increase the mesocracking risk. Model application to the assessment of cracking risk during drying of argillite is the topic of the companion paper (Part II). Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Planktic foraminiferal porosity: a water mass proxy for latest Cenomanian paleoceanography, Greenhorn Sea, Western Interior USA and Canada

Planktic foraminiferal porosity analyses can be used as a water mass proxy and were conducted on samples from above the latest Cenomanian Neocardioceras or B bentonite from the Western Interior Seaway of North America. This time slice provides a snapshot of water mass characteristics in this vast epicontinental sea during the early phase of Oceanic Anoxic Event 2. Mean sample porosity decreases northward and is interpreted as northward decrease in water temperature at the depth Hedbergella delrioensis (Carsey) calcified. Four water masses are defined by porosity, their boundaries are extremely similar to water mass boundaries previously identified by others using the distributions of macrofossils, microfossils and lithology. The boundary between the Subtropical–Tropical Water Mass and Central Subtropical Water Mass was located in southern Colorado. The boundary between the Central Subtropical Water Mass and the Northern Temperate Water Mass lay at approximately 48°N latitude. This boundary is displaced northward approximately 8° latitude as compared to the Holocene planktic foraminiferal temperate ocean province. Within-sample porosity variation suggests all water masses except the Temperate Water Mass were thermally stratified. Samples from the south indicate that the Subtropical–Tropical Water Mass was the most stratified. The porosity data support a previously published data-based paleoceanographic circulation of the southwestern seaway.     

Reduced order models for many-query subsurface flow applications

Inverse modeling involves repeated evaluations of forward models, which can be computationally prohibitive for large numerical models. To reduce the overall computational burden of these simulations, we study the use of reduced order models (ROMs) as numerical surrogates. These ROMs usually involve using solutions to high-fidelity models at different sample points within the parameter space to construct an approximate solution at any point within the parameter space. This paper examines an input–output relational approach based on Gaussian process regression (GPR). We show that these ROMs are more accurate than the linear lookup tables with the same number of high-fidelity simulations. We describe an adaptive sampling procedure that automatically selects optimal sample points and demonstrate the use of GPR to a smooth response surface and a response surface with abrupt changes. We also describe how GPR can be used to construct ROMs for models with heterogeneous material properties. Finally, we demonstrate how the use of a GPR-based ROM in two many-query applications—uncertainty quantification and global sensitivity analysis—significantly reduces the total computational effort.     

Uncertainty quantification of overpressure buildup through inverse modeling of compaction processes in sedimentary basins

This study illustrates a procedure conducive to a preliminary risk analysis of overpressure development in sedimentary basins characterized by alternating depositional events of sandstone and shale layers. The approach rests on two key elements: (1) forward modeling of fluid flow and compaction, and (2) application of a model-complexity reduction technique based on a generalized polynomial chaos expansion (gPCE). The forward model considers a one-dimensional vertical compaction processes. The gPCE model is then used in an inverse modeling context to obtain efficient model parameter estimation and uncertainty quantification. The methodology is applied to two field settings considered in previous literature works, i.e. the Venture Field (Scotian Shelf, Canada) and the Navarin Basin (Bering Sea, Alaska, USA), relying on available porosity and pressure information for model calibration. It is found that the best result is obtained when porosity and pressure data are considered jointly in the model calibration procedure. Uncertainty propagation from unknown input parameters to model outputs, such as pore pressure vertical distribution, is investigated and quantified. This modeling strategy enables one to quantify the relative importance of key phenomena governing the feedback between sediment compaction and fluid flow processes and driving the buildup of fluid overpressure in stratified sedimentary basins characterized by the presence of low-permeability layers. The results here illustrated (1) allow for diagnosis of the critical role played by the parameters of quantitative formulations linking porosity and permeability in compacted shales and (2) provide an explicit and detailed quantification of the effects of their uncertainty in field settings.     

15 years of in situ cement–argillite interaction from Tournemire URL: Characterisation of the multi-scale spatial heterogeneities of pore space evolution

The solution selected by some countries to isolate radioactive wastes from the biosphere for up to one million years in deep geological repositories includes a multi-barrier disposal design, with steel canister, bentonite and cement materials. The geochemical contrast between such materials and the host rock formation creates perturbations potentially altering the confinement properties of the formation. In this context, the French Institute for the Radiological protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN) have developed an in situ experimental programme based on the study of cement/argillaceous formation interfaces in their Underground Research Laboratory at Tournemire (Aveyron, France). An in situ engineered analogue of a cement/clay-rock interface which has undergone 15 years of interaction has been characterised. Such important interaction time for an in situ engineered analogue provides a bridge between laboratory-derived data and the long time scale of safety assessment modelling. As the mineralogical and petrological investigations have already been published, this work presents for the first time a quantitative characterisation of the spatial distribution of the porosity in the cement and the clay-rock in terms of time scale and design. Interfaces have been characterised using an autoradiography technique in addition to petrophysical measurements. This technique enables visualisation and quantification of the spatial distribution of the porosity using 2D mapping of decimetric-scale specimens. Thus autoradiographs allow highlighting the relationship between the field heterogeneities and the pore space evolution in each material in contact. Moreover, the porosity measurements show a clogging of the porosity in the clay-rock while the porosity increases in the cement. The extension of the porosity evolution extends to a centimetre on both sides of the interface but is heterogeneously distributed in space as a function of the fissure network and interface geometries. The connected fissure network visualised using autoradiography in the clogged area could permit solute (e.g. radionuclide) transport and may also be interpreted as an evolution of the mechanical properties of the clay-rock formation upon alkaline perturbation. This set of data, with the spatial quantification of the porosity in both cement and clay materials will be useful to constrain reactive transport modelling and thus to predict long term evolution of an engineered barrier.     

水稻灌区节水灌溉的尺度效应

探讨了节水灌溉尺度问题,指出产生节水灌溉尺度现象的原因是由于灌溉过程中回归水的重复利用.结合漳河灌区的实际,讨论了水稻种植区在不同尺度下的水平衡要素及其在节水尺度效应中的作用;说明随尺度的增大,水平衡过程变得复杂化,节水尺度效应现象也更突出.利用漳河灌区田间试验数据和灌区长系列的历史资料,分别从田间、中等、灌溉干渠和灌区共四个尺度,定量地分析了水稻节水灌溉对水分生产率以及水分利用率的影响.结果表明,节水灌溉技术的采用不仅可以提高田间尺度的灌溉水分生产率,也促进了漳河灌区灌溉水分生产率的整体上升.     

Formation of bed‐scale spatial patterns in dolomite abundance during early dolomitization: Part I. Mechanisms and feedbacks revealed by reaction–transport modelling

Dolomites of varied ages exhibit metre‐scale nested patterns of lateral periodic variation in permeability and porosity and, by inference, dolomite abundance as most examples are 100% dolomite. Two‐dimensional reaction–transport modelling simulations of bed‐scale dolomitization were used to assess whether those patterns in dolomite abundance could form during near‐surface replacement dolomitization. Simulations used a 2 m high and 18 m long model domain, a low‐Mg calcite grainstone precursor and an evaporated Mississippian seawater brine (430 parts per thousand salinity) as the dolomitizing fluid. The domain was initially populated with random variations in porosity and/or grain size. Results reveal that spatial patterns in dolomite abundance emerge when there is as little as 1% dolomite formed, with similarities between the modelled patterns and outcrop‐documented patterns. The nested patterns include a near‐random component that constitutes ≤40% of the total variance, short‐range correlation ranging from 1·5 to 3·3 m and a longer‐range periodic trend with a wavelength up to 6·5 m. The emergence of pattern in dolomite abundance is the result of an autogenic self‐organizing phenomenon. It is triggered by variation in initial calcite reactive surface area that occurs due to the random heterogeneities in initial porosity and/or grain sizes. The pattern develops due to a combination of kinetic disequilibrium reactions (dolomite precipitation and calcite dissolution) and positive feedbacks between dolomite growth, calcite dissolution and fluid flow. Flow is around loci of higher dolomite, lower porosity and higher reactive surface areas, but through loci of lower dolomite, higher porosity and lower reactive surface areas. The resulting less porous/more dolomite and more porous/less dolomite structures at the metre‐scale arise from those localized interactions. This self‐organizing mechanism for pattern formation constitutes a new model for geochemical self‐organization during dolomitization and is the only self‐organization model that is proven applicable to the formation of metre‐scale patterns during early, near‐surface dolomitization.     

Computations of Absolute Permeability on Micro-CT Images

We apply an accurate numerical scheme to solve for Stokes flow directly on binarized three-dimensional rock images, such as those obtained by micro-CT imaging. The method imposes no-flow conditions exactly at the solid boundaries and employs an algebraic multigrid method to solve for the resultant set of linear equations. We compute the permeability of a range of consolidated and unconsolidated porous rocks; the results are comparable with those obtained using the lattice Boltzmann method and agree with experimental measurements on larger core samples. We show that the Kozeny–Carman equation can over-estimate permeability by a factor of 10 or more, particularly for the more heterogeneous systems studied. We study the existence and size of the representative elementary volume (REV) at lamina scale. We demonstrate that the REV for permeability is larger than for static properties—porosity and specific surface area—since it needs to account for the tortuosity and connectedness of the flow paths. For the carbonate samples, the REV appeared to be larger than the image size. We also study the anisotropy of permeability at the pore scale. We show that the permeability of sandpacks varies by less than 10 % in different directions. For sandstones, permeability changes by 25 % on average. However, the anisotropy of permeability in carbonates can be up to 50 %, indicating the existence of connected pores in one direction which are not connected in another.     

Scale effect on rock fissuration porosity

Scale effect on rock fissuration porosity is analyzed by means of structural conceptual schematic diagram designed for a reservoir of cubical blocks separated by clefts with constant openings. Two cases are considered: (1) either the blocks are compact (simple porosity due to clefts), or (2) the blocks are affected by fissuration porosity (in which case the system has double fissural porosity). This hexahedral schematization is consistent with what is often noted in tectonic fissuration. Porosities are calculated for increasing volumes whether they be spherical or cubic, and these porosities are expressed in relation to the average effective porosity of the aggregate. If we refer to the different sizes of the interfissural distances normally observed, we note that the representative porosities can probably be reached only for volumes in excess of 10⁶ m³, even in the best circumstances. (This is the Representative Elementary Volume). For such volumes, an experimental approach seems difficult. Moreover, in natural media, volumes of such magnitude must embody various fields of heterogeneity which adversely affect the significance of apparent porosities. This is the case as shown by a variation within the same rock in the fissuration density. We conclude, therefore, that research into this type of porosity should be carried out by statistical methods, because we are dealing with a parameter that can be analyzed as the function of a regionalized variable and expressed as a term of probability.     

Experimental investigation of dry density effects on dielectric properties of soil–water mixtures with different specific surface areas

The dielectric constant of soil is used to estimate its water content in a range of applications. Unlike the widely known effect of water content on the soil dielectric constant (consistent direct proportionality), only a limited number of studies have reported the effects of soil dry density, however, with equivocal results. This paper, therefore, investigates the effects of dry density or degree of compaction on the dielectric constant of five different soil types. The results of the experimental work for the soils ranging from sand to Bentonite clay with distinct specific surface areas were evaluated based on the use of two simple mixture models (De Loor and Birchak). The effects of dry density on the soil dielectric constant were found to be soil type dependent. This is demonstrated by the experimental data and further proven by the modified De Loor model. The behavior is shown to be defined by the changes in the free water, bound water, and solid particle volume fractions, ultimately controlled by the soil specific surface area. The dielectric constant changes from being directly proportional to dry density to inversely proportional at a threshold specific surface area of between 122 and 147 m²/g. Supported by the experimental observations, parametric analysis has revealed that the range for the dielectric constant of bound water was found to be 9–37, while the geometrical parameter α in the Birchak model was found to be 0.4–0.8.

     

大尺度水文模型参数不确定性分析的挑战与综合研究框架

水文模型是对自然界复杂水文现象与过程的一种综合近似描述,在水旱灾害防治、水资源管理与开发利用等方面应用广泛。本文分析了大尺度水文模型应用的难点,总结了参数不确定性研究的主要进展,介绍了参数不确定性分析框架“敏感性分析—参数优化—参数区域化”(SOR)的基本概念、重要性与应用情况。论文基于已有认识,建议在水文建模优化过程中引入更全面的参数不确定性分析SOR框架,并加强新一代分布式水文模型与更加成熟的水文气象数据观测系统的开发,以减少来自模型结构与模型驱动数据的不确定性,提高全球变化背景下大尺度水文模型水循环过程模拟和预测的准确性。     

The thermal conductivity for granite with various water contents

The thermal conductivities of granite were measured under different conditions of porosity and water content to investigate the effects of the porosity and water content on the thermal conductivity. For the dry samples, the thermal conductivities range from 2.12 W/mK for the rocks with a high porosity to 3.12 W/mK for the ones with a low porosity. Water-sorbed samples have greater thermal conductivities than dry samples of the same granite. The thermal conductivities range from 2.99 W/mK for granites with a high porosity to 3.62 W/mK for ones with a low porosity under saturated condition.     

水源热泵井回灌堵塞颗粒迁移模型的建立

以地下水源热泵井回灌中的物理堵塞问题作为研究背景,建立基于质量平衡方程来模拟多孔介质中颗粒的迁移方程和颗粒的沉积造成孔隙损伤的数学模型。该模型充分考虑了颗粒流动速度修正系数、孔隙率修正系数以及颗粒在孔隙里发生捕获率3个因素;模型的建立考虑孔隙率变化的情况,在物质的迁移和堵塞的过程中,孔隙率的变化往往也是个动态的变化过程;与传统的过滤模型相比,考虑了速度折减系数和流量折减系数后新建模型更加系统、全面。该模型为解决回灌井物理堵塞的室内外试验研究提供理论依据。     

A coupled non-isothermal reactive transport model for long-term geochemical evolution of a HLW repository in clay

A numerical model of coupled saturated/unsaturated water flow, heat transfer and multi-component reactive solute transport is presented to evaluate the long-term geochemical evolution in bentonite, concrete and clay formation for a potential geological radioactive waste repository. Changes in formation porosity caused by mineral dissolution/precipitation reactions are taken into account. Simulations were carried out with a general-purpose multicomponent reactive transport code, CORE^2D V4. Numerical results show that pH in the bentonite porewater can vary from neutral to up to 13 over a time scale of 1 Ma although dissolution of silica minerals and precipitation of secondary calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) minerals in bentonite buffer the effect of the hyperalkaline plume. Mineral precipitation reduces the volume of pore space in bentonite close to the bentonite–concrete interface due to the precipitation of CSH minerals. Model results indicate that bentonite porosity decreases less than 25%. The hyperalkaline plume from the concrete only extends to a distance of 0.7 m in the clay formation over the time range of 1 Ma.     

宁夏中部干旱带露水形成机制及其对表层土壤水分的影响

露水的形成及其对土壤水分的影响是进一步量化水循环和生态水文过程的重要依据。为探明露水发生规律,在宁夏中部干旱带连续3 a观测了每30 min气象资料和表层土壤水分,用叶片湿度传感器测算了露水量。结果表明：该区年露水量可达56.41 mm, 75%发生在6—10月,最大月露水量和日露水量分别为13.40 mm和0.80 mm,主要发生在03:00—08:00;露水发生的气温、相对湿度和风速范围分别为0～24.4℃、50%～100%和0.16～1.74 m/s,风向为30°～60°(东北风)和270°～330°(西南偏西风);气温和露点差与相对湿度之间呈极显著线性逆相关,气温和露点差小于3℃且相对湿度大于80%时极易产生露水;日露水量为0.6 mm、0.7 mm和0.8 mm时表层5 cm土壤贮水量可分别提高0.10 mm、0.20 mm和0.25 mm。该地区年均降露量是降雨量的13.5%,露水年均发生频率为126 d(35%),是当地水循环和生态系统不可忽略的水源。     

Numerical modeling of porosity waves in the Nankai accretionary wedge décollement,Japan: implications for aseismic slip

Seismic and hydrologic observations of the Nankai accretionary wedge décollement, Japan, show that overpressures at depths greater than ～2 km beneath the seafloor could have increased to near lithostatic values due to sediment compaction and diagenesis, clay dehydration, and shearing. The resultant high overpressures are hypothesized then to have migrated in rapid surges or pulses called ‘porosity waves’ up the dip of the décollement. Such high velocities—much higher than expected Darcy fluxes—are possible for porosity waves if the porous media through which the waves travel are deformable enough for porosity and permeability to increase strongly with increasing fluid pressure. The present study aimed to test the hypothesis that porosity waves can travel at rates (kilometers per day) fast enough to cause aseismic slip in the Nankai décollement. The hypothesis was tested using a one-dimensional numerical solution to the fluid mass conservation equation for elastic porous media. Results show that porosity waves generated at depths of ～2 km from overpressures in excess of lithostatic pressure can propagate at rates sufficient to account for aseismic slip along the décollement over a wide range of hydrogeological conditions. Sensitivity analysis showed porosity wave velocity to be strongly dependent on specific storage, fluid viscosity, and the permeability–depth gradient. Overpressure slightly less than lithostatic pressure could also produce porosity waves capable of traveling at velocities sufficient to cause aseismic slip, provided that hydrogeologic properties of the décollement are near the limits of their geologically reasonable ranges.     

成矿元素品位有序数据集自仿射分形方法应用性评价

自仿射分形的Hurst指数是分析地质剖面数据的有利参数。以大尹格庄金矿不同勘探线刻槽取样所得的金品位序列为例，评价Hurst指数的几种估算方法在地质剖面数据分析中的适用性。取相同尺度，全部数据集的增量标准偏差法统计散点呈波状变化，部分数据集的曲线长度变换法统计散点的后半部分呈波状变化,全部数据集的重标极差分析法统计散点线性拟合较好。结果显示增量标准偏差法对尺度要求较为苛刻，适于巨量数据的统计；曲线长度变换法应用性较广，所得Hurst指数反映品位的空间变化强度；重标极差分析法稳定性最好，其Hurst指数反映了品位变化相依性。      

基于机器学习和测井数据的碳酸盐岩孔隙度与渗透率预测

准确预测碳酸盐岩储层孔隙度和渗透率对于碳酸盐岩油气藏储层评价具有重要意义。碳酸盐岩储层裂缝与溶孔广泛发育,基于经验公式从测井曲线预测储层孔隙度和渗透率具有较大误差。以中东某碳酸盐岩油藏为研究对象,选取914块取心井岩心,测定孔隙度与渗透率,利用随机森林（RF）、K-近邻（KNN）、支持向量机（SVM）和长短期记忆网络（LSTM）4种不同机器学习方法,通过测井数据进行孔隙度与渗透率预测,优化机器学习参数,筛选出适用于碳酸盐岩油藏的测井孔隙度与渗透率预测方法。研究结果表明：4种机器学习方法预测储层孔隙度结果差异不大,通过调整输入参数种类,可进一步提高孔隙度与渗透率预测效果,当以补偿中子（NPHI）、岩性密度（RHOB）和声波时差（DT）3种测井参数数据作为输入时,基于LSTM的储层孔隙度预测精度最高,孔隙度预测结果均方根误差（RMSE）为4.536 2;由于碳酸盐岩储层的强非均质性,基于机器学习的测井储层渗透率预测效果较差,相对而言,仅以NPHI作为机器学习输入参数时,基于RF的储层渗透率预测精度最高,渗透率预测结果的RMSE为45.882 3。