Optimizing the Determination of Roughness Parameters for Model Urban Canopies

We present an objective optimization procedure to determine the roughness parameters for very rough boundary-layer flow over model urban canopies. For neutral stratification the mean velocity profile above a model urban canopy is described by the logarithmic law together with the set of roughness parameters of displacement height d, roughness length \(z_0\), and friction velocity \(u_*\). Traditionally, values of these roughness parameters are obtained by fitting the logarithmic law through (all) the data points comprising the velocity profile. The new procedure generates unique velocity profiles from subsets or combinations of the data points of the original velocity profile, after which all possible profiles are examined. Each of the generated profiles is fitted to the logarithmic law for a sequence of values of d, with the representative value of d obtained from the minima of the summed least-squares errors for all the generated profiles. The representative values of \(z_0\) and \(u_*\) are identified by the peak in the bivariate histogram of \(z_0\) and \(u_*\). The methodology has been verified against laboratory datasets of flow above model urban canopies.     

Numerical Simulation to Evaluate the Effects of Upward Lightning Discharges on Thunderstorm Electrical Parameters

A theoretical discussion of the discharge effects of upward lightning simulated with a fine-resolution 2D thunderstorm model is performed in this paper,and the results reveal that the estimates of the total induced charge on the upward lightning discharge channels range from 0.67 to 118.8 C,and the average value is 19.0 C,while the ratio of the induced charge on the leader channels to the total opposite-polarity charge in the discharge region ranges from 5.9%to 47.3%,with an average value of 14.7%.Moreover,the average value of the space electrostatic energy consumed by upward lightning is 1.06×10^9 J.The above values are lower than those related to intracloud lightning discharges.The density of the deposited opposite-polarity charge is comparable in magnitude to that of the preexisting charge in the discharge area,and the deposition of these opposite-polarity charges rapidly destroys the original space potential well in the discharge area and greatly reduces the space electric field strength.In addition,these opposite-polarity charges are redistributed with the development of thunderstorms.The space charge redistribution caused by lightning discharges partly accounts for the complexity of the charge structures in a thunderstorm,and the complexity gradually decreases with the charge neutralization process.     

Numerical Simulation of Effects of Cloud Top Temperatures and Generating Cells on Secondary Ice Production in Stratiform Clouds with a Detailed Microphysical Model

This paper outlines a one-dimensional,heightdependent bin model with detailed microphysical processes in which ice splinters are produced by a riming process.The model is then applied to simulate the shift of particle size distribution effected by the secondary ice production process within clouds with different generating cells and cloud top temperatures.The result of model simulations reveals the general effects of cloud updrafts on increasing ice particle concentration by extending the residence time of ice particles in clouds and providing sufficiently large supercooled water droplets.The rimesplintering mechanism is more effective in clouds with lower ice seeding rates than those with higher rates.Evolutions of hydrometeor size distribution triggered by the rime-splintering mechanism indicate that the interaction between large ice particles and supercooled water drops adds a "second maximum" to the primary ice spectra.     

北京城市内涝积水的数值模拟

北京城市内涝数值模型(BUW)根据北京复杂地形和大城市特点,将各类空间信息剖分为6458个网格及相应的通道,围绕城市地表、河道沟渠、排水管网等城市主要水文水动力学物理过程,模拟积水深度变化情况。以精细化的降水监测为驱动条件,BUW可以较好地模拟出“7·21”城市内涝积水的空间分布,对重点桥区的积水深度,积水过程的模拟也比较贴近实际,具有良好的模拟性能。360 min历时的2年重现期降雨情景下,北京四环内就会产生一定的积水,以孤立的积水点为主。10和50年重现期下,积水的深度和范围都有所增加,且开始呈片状。100年重现期,整个五环内都出现严重的城市积水,南部出现大片超过50 cm的积水区域,部分地区积水超过80 cm。面对“7·21”级别的降水,排水管网直径拓宽20%并不能明显改善城市排水能力。拓宽60%时,四环到五环之间的积水明显减弱,四环以内的大部分积水减弱。拓宽100%时,仅在二环到四环之间还有一些较浅的积水,拓宽140%时,六环内大部分积水消失。     

气象卫星与城市气象环境模拟研究

利用徐敏等人建立的具有广泛用途的区域边界层模式 (NJU RBLM) ,对北京城市区域的气象环境特征做了比较细致的模拟研究 ;然后 ,再利用NOAA AVHRR气象卫星遥感资料 ,采用修正的Ulivieri分裂窗方法反演得到北京城市区域地表温度场 ,将其结果与同样区域范围的数值模拟结果进行对比分析 ,以此进一步检验数值模式的模拟效果和卫星观测资料处理方案的可行性。分析表明 :采用NJU RBLM模拟得到的地面热力场分布及其变化总体趋势与晴空条件下的卫星反演结果基本一致 ,卫星反演的地表热力场分布和强度要较模式模拟的结果更为细致 ;两者都能较好地反映夜间的城市热岛效应和春夏秋季白天的弱冷岛现象 ,夜间的城市高温区以及由山区向城市平原地区风速渐小的辐合过渡带高温区都比较明显 ,午后城市地区温度略低于周边东南地区。     

霰粒子参数对强对流云降水和催化影响的数值模拟研究

本文利用三维对流云AgI催化模式, 开展了霰粒子密度和落速参数的敏感性模拟试验, 以研究高凇附度时霰粒子参数的选取对催化模拟结果的影响。敏感性试验中对七个霰微物理过程进行了调整。分析发现改变霰落速参数和霰密度, 可以引起3小时模拟的总降水量增加4.9%。催化后改变了敏感性试验中霰落速和上升气流的配置, 并影响到霰碰并云水和冰晶的过程, 及霰融化成雨水的过程。在高凇附度云中如果只增加霰密度而没有增加相应的落速系数, 将使云中霰含量大幅增加。霰参数也影响了自然云和催化云的降水效率。过量催化使得催化云的降水效率低于自然云。增加霰密度的同时也增加霰落速系数, 将使其降水效率高于对照试验, 从而影响催化效果。在高凇附度云中采用大密度和较大下落系数, 并且利用比数浓度平均落速计算霰粒子比数浓度的下落过程, 会使催化效率从25%减少到15%, 极大地改变催化效果。所以在高凇附度的暴雨个例中, 应当采用高霰密度和相应的高霰落速, 否则减雨的催化效果将会被大幅夸大。     

Effects of Roof-Edge Roughness on Air Temperature and Pollutant Concentration in Urban Canyons

The influence of roof-edge roughness elements on airflow, heat transfer, and street-level pollutant transport inside and above a two-dimensional urban canyon is analyzed using an urban energy balance model coupled to a large-eddy simulation model. Simulations are performed for cold (early morning) and hot (mid afternoon) periods during the hottest month of the year (August) for the climate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. The analysis suggests that early in the morning, and when the tallest roughness elements are implemented, the temperature above the street level increases on average by 0.5 K, while the pollutant concentration decreases by 2% of the street-level concentration. For the same conditions in mid afternoon, the temperature decreases conservatively by 1 K, while the pollutant concentration increases by 7% of the street-level concentration. As a passive or active architectural solution, the roof roughness element shows promise for improving thermal comfort and air quality in the canyon for specific times, but this should be further verified experimentally. The results also warrant a closer look at the effects of mid-range roughness elements in the urban morphology on atmospheric dynamics so as to improve parametrizations in mesoscale modelling.     

青岛地区8月一次海风环流实例分析和WRF模拟

根据青岛地区2006年8月份浮标站、岸基站和陆地站观测资料及探空加密测风资料,分析了8月21日到22日一次典型的海、陆风环流过程,并进行了WRF数值模拟和检验分析.观测数据分析表明:海、陆风环流在垂直方向分别具有闭合环流,海风环流发展高度远高于陆风环流,海风环流午后发展最强盛,海风在底层最先发展并在底层最先消失,风速大小随高度减小,发生海风环流时青岛站与浮标站的海陆气温差在4℃以上,海风环流向内陆推进大约40多千米;WRF模式较好地模拟了海风环流发生发展的完整过程,并揭示了海风环流与半岛北部相向风场的相互作用,在半岛中部地区存在辐合上升区.     

城市暴雨积涝数值模拟技术方法

洪涝灾害是中国最常见、影响最严重的自然灾害之一。在当前城市内涝模拟研究中,通常是对降雨过程中积涝最严重状态进行模拟,缺乏面向整个降雨过程的积涝动态过程模拟技术方法。本研究综合运用SWMM模型和GIS技术,通过对研究区的汇水区划分和排水管网概化建模,建立了研究区的SWMM模型,基于SWMM模型对降雨过程中汇水区积水量进行计算,利用地表积水有源扩散算法进行地表积水演进行计算,实现降雨过程中地表积水空间分布和积水风险深度模拟计算。以研究区2016年6月18日的降水过程进行积涝模拟及模拟误差分析,结果表明该技术方法具有良好的模拟效果。     

气溶胶粒子对城市雾影响的模拟研究

在三维雾模式内增加气溶胶粒子的长波辐射效应,旨在运用模拟的方法研究夜间城市气溶胶粒子对雾的形成和发展的影响.运用重庆市的地形及有关资料,模拟了重庆市冬季雾的形成和发展过程,并与不考虑气溶胶粒子情况下雾的形成和发展过程进行了对比分析.结果表明:气溶胶粒子的存在,由于其温度效应,使地面雾形成时间推迟,低层雾含水量普遍减小;适量的气溶胶粒子有助于重庆雾向高处发展;当气溶胶粒子成倍增加后,对雾的形成和发展均有阻碍作用.     

Vertical Structure of the Urban Boundary Layer over Marseille Under Sea-Breeze Conditions

During the UBL-ESCOMPTE program (June–July 2001), intensive observations were performed in Marseille (France). In particular, a Doppler lidar, located in the north of the city, provided radial velocity measurements on a 6-km radius area in the lowest 3 km of the troposphere. Thus, it is well adapted to document the vertical structure of the atmosphere above complex terrain, notably in Marseille, which is bordered by the Mediterranean sea and framed by numerous massifs. The present study focuses on the last day of the intensive observation period 2 (26 June 2001), which is characterized by a weak synoptic pressure gradient favouring the development of thermal circulations. Under such conditions, a complex stratification of the atmosphere is observed. Three-dimensional numerical simulations, with the Méso-NH atmospheric model including the town energy balance (TEB) urban parameterization, are conducted over south-eastern France. A complete evaluation of the model outputs was already performed at both regional and city scales. Here, the 250-m resolution outputs describing the vertical structure of the atmosphere above the Marseille area are compared to the Doppler lidar data, for which the spatial resolution is comparable. This joint analysis underscores the consistency between the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) observed by the Doppler lidar and that modelled by Méso-NH. The observations and simulations reveal the presence of a shallow sea breeze (SSB) superimposed on a deep sea breeze (DSB) above Marseille during daytime. Because of the step-like shape of the Marseille coastline, the SSB is organized in two branches of different directions, which converge above the city centre. The analysis of the 250-m wind fields shows evidence of the role of the local topography on the local dynamics. Indeed, the topography tends to reinforce the SSB while it weakens the DSB. The ABL is directly affected by the different sea-breeze circulations, while the urban effects appear to be negligible.     

地球轨道偏心率变化对东亚季风气候模拟的影响

采用较为真实的椭圆轨道代替了原区域气候模式中的圆近似轨道,并进行了10年模拟试验,用以了解该模式对东亚季风区气候年际变化的模拟能力,同时比较地球轨道参数计算变化对现代东亚季风气候模拟的影响.结果表明:当把模式中的地球轨道计算从圆形改为椭圆时,中国东部的降水模拟有所改进,东亚地区的温度、降水、比湿等气候要素均出现夏季降低(减少)而冬季升高(增加)的季节变化趋势,而且亚洲冬、夏季风也均有减弱.但从总体上说,现代气候状况的模拟对地球公转轨道的计算方案不敏感.通过该工作的模拟研究说明,对较短时期的现代气候模拟,地球公转轨道采用圆近似是可行的.     

Observational and Numerical Study on the Influence of Large-Scale Flow Direction and Coastline Shape on Sea-Breeze Evolution

In this study radar, surface observations and numericalsimulations are used to examine the inland penetrationand intensity of the sea breeze during various large-scaleflow regimes along the curved coastline of the Carolinas,U.S.A. The results clearly indicate that the flow directionrelative to the curved coastline has a significant effecton the sea-breeze evolution.Overall, during northerly flow regimes alongthe curved North Carolina coast, observationsand numerical simulations show that the sea-breezefront has a tendency to remain close to the south-facingcoast. During these same flow regimes the frontmoves further inland relative to the east-facingcoast. The sea-breeze front during westerly flowcases progressed further inland relative to the southcoast and less so from the east-facing coastline.South-westerly flow allows the sea breeze to moveinland from both coastlines but the coastal shapeinfluence makes the inland penetration less fromthe easterly facing beaches. During periods of lightonshore flow (south-east), the sea breeze movesconsiderable distances inland but is not discernableuntil later in the afternoon. The simulations indicatedthat the sea-breeze intensity is greatest (least) when thelarge-scale flow direction has an offshore (onshore)component. Model results indicate the existence of astrong front well inland in the late afternoon duringlight onshore flow. Also noted was that the simulatedsea-breeze front develops earlier in the afternoon duringoffshore regimes and later in the day as the large-scaleflow becomes more onshore. It is concluded that thecoastline shape and coast-relative flow direction areimportant factors in determining how the sea-breezecirculation evolves spatially.     

城市街道峡谷汽车尾气污染的数值模拟

建立了一个简单的三维街道峡谷空气污染模式,并用实测资料进行了验证。利用建立的模式设计了7种试验方案,对街道峡谷内的污染状况进行了模拟。以CO为模拟对象的数值试验结果表明,街道峡谷上空的风速风向条件是决定街道峡谷内的污染状况的重要因素。峡谷上空风向与街道轴线的夹角越大、风速越小,则街道地面CO浓度越高。以现有的兰州典型车流量和排放因子,兰州街道地面CO浓度容易超标;若不控制车流量,到2008年,即使兰州上路汽车排放达标,但街道地面CO浓度仍然容易超标。     

地形对山西暴雨影响的数值模拟研究

为了深入研究地形对暴雨的影响,提高暴雨预报的精准度,利用逐6 h NCEP 1°×1°再分析资料和中尺度模式WRF V3.2.1,对2007年7月29-0日发生在山西南部的一次特大暴雨过程做了地形敏感性数值模拟试验,探讨地形改变后对此次暴雨过程的影响。结果表明:特大暴雨是在有利的环境场及特殊地形作用下发生的,与地形的影响密切相关。山西海拔高度和地形起伏对暴雨落区和强度有重要的影响,降低全省的海拔高度会使暴雨强度减小,落区向西北偏移。在降低晋东南太行山海拔高度的同时去掉地形起伏,则会使低空偏南暖湿气流不再受太行山阻挡,一直北上到晋中吕梁山的东侧才受地形阻挡辐合抬升,导致暴雨北移到吕梁山东侧且落区增大。地形对低层水平风场和水汽的影响也很大,改变地形会迫使近地层水平流场辐合线的位置和强度发生改变,也会改变水汽的分布。喇叭口地形对暴雨有非常大的增幅作用,破坏掉喇叭口地形之后,降水强度大为减弱。喇叭口地形对垂直环流及散度、涡度等物理量场的分布也有很大影响。     

大尺度环境风场对城市热岛效应影响的数值模拟试验

利用耦合模式WRF-UCM模拟了上海、南京两个地区4次城市热岛现象,发现城市热岛效应高温的水平分布与大尺度环境风场之间有着密切的联系:城市热岛的高温带在地面风的影响下,向下风方平移,导致城市下游郊区的气温明显上升.从气温垂直剖面图上可以看出,在地面风的作用下,低层大气都出现了一个水平方向上的高温带,从城区一直延伸到下游...     

南昌市城区暴雨积水的数值模拟

论述了南昌市城市暴雨积水仿真系统的数学原理和开发成果,并应用实况降水对该系统的模拟精度进行测试。结果表明:大多数(62.6%)模拟计算结果的绝对误差在10 cm以内,只有极少数(2.4%)实际积水与模拟结果的误差超过30 cm。暴雨积水等级试验结果表明,中度以上暴雨积水地段的预报准确率达98%,轻度积水和无积水地段的预报准确率达92%。总体来看,暴雨积水趋势(等级)预报基本准确,定量(积水深度)预报有误差,平均相对误差为6%,模型的预测结果与实况基本相符。通过人工给定不同强度的雨量来模拟南昌市两个重点积水地段的积水过程,得到结论:当降水强度达到20 mm/h时,开始产生积水,降水强度超过30 mm/h时将产生严重积水;两个积水点因排水条件不一样,退水时间差异较大。排水条件差的地段,中—大雨需要15 h退完,暴雨需要24 h以上才能退完;在不同降水强度和排水条件下,最大积水深度出现的时间有明显区别;在暴雨情况下,绝大部分(76%)积水点的最大积水深度出现在2~3 h内。此外,讨论了模拟误差产生的原因。     

昆明城市热岛效应的数值模拟研究

本文利用WRF（V3.9.1）模式中耦合Noah/SLUCM方案作为Control试验,研究了土地利用类型（Md04试验）、陆面过程（NoUCM试验）和湖泊（Nolake试验）对城市热岛强度及昆明城市气象要素水平、垂直的时空分布影响。主要结论如下:（1）四个试验城市热岛强度的平均日变化趋势相似,白天城市热岛强度较弱、夜间较强,在20时（北京时,下同）左右达到最大值。城市冠层（湖泊）对城市热岛有较明显的减（增）温,Control-NoUCM（Nolake）试验中,平均日最大差值为?0.79°C（+1.07°C）。（2）从能量平衡方程分析Control-Md04试验,感热（潜热）通量的差值为+46.18（?79.71）W m?2,潜热通量释放大于感热通量的绝对值。Control-NoUCM试验中,感热（潜热）通量的差值为?40.88（+29.60）W m?2;因NoUCM试验未考虑几何建筑物储热与遮挡,太阳辐射大部分被地表所吸收,导致感热通量偏大。（3）四种试验中,15（07）时边界层高度达到最大（小）值。NoUCM（Nolake）试验中城市边界层高度分别降低103 m（32 m）左右,而Md04试验中城市边界层高度增加102 m左右。（4）湖泊（滇池）对城市热岛环流影响的试验表明,湖泊上空垂直运动较弱,但水平方向湖陆风较大,这有利于向城市输送水汽,增加干空气湿度,使城市中空气的水汽含量增加,同时增大潜热能量释放,降低感热通量,减小了垂直温度梯度。     

Estimates of Roughness Parameters for Arrays of Obstacles

Some methods are evaluated and extended to estimate roughness length and zero plane displacement height for atmospheric flow over arrays of obstacles, typically buildings. It appears that the method proposed by Bottema, with an extension to account for low density obstacle arrays, performs best. Procedures are proposed to represent irregular obstacle arrangements by a representative regular array to which Bottema's method can be applied. It is shown that this can be done without loss of accuracy, in general, roughness length can be predicted within a factor of two in more than 74% of the cases (95% reliability estimate). The methods proposed by Lettau and Raupach have been included in the evaluation. Lettau's model, which only requires input on the frontal area density, predicts roughness length unbiassed for frontal area densities up to 0.3, but predictions will be within a factor of two in more than 59% of the cases only (95% reliability estimate).     

The Budget of Turbulent Kinetic Energy in the Urban Roughness Sublayer

Full-scale observations from two urban sites in Basel, Switzerland were analysed to identify the magnitude of different processes that create, relocate, and dissipate turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) in the urban atmosphere. Two towers equipped with a profile of six ultrasonic anemometers each sampled the flow in the urban roughness sublayer, i.e. from street canyon base up to roughly 2.5 times the mean building height. This observational study suggests a conceptual division of the urban roughness sublayer into three layers: (1) the layer above the highest roofs, where local buoyancy production and local shear production of TKE are counterbalanced by local viscous dissipation rate and scaled turbulence statistics are close to to surface-layer values; (2) the layer around mean building height with a distinct inflexional mean wind profile, a strong shear and wake production of TKE, a more efficient turbulent exchange of momentum, and a notable export of TKE by transport processes; (3) the lower street canyon with imported TKE by transport processes and negligible local production. Averaged integral velocity variances vary significantly with height in the urban roughness sublayer and reflect the driving processes that create or relocate TKE at a particular height. The observed profiles of the terms of the TKE budget and the velocity variances show many similarities to observations within and above vegetation canopies.