Conformal mapping of groundwater flow fields with internal boundaries

An analytical approach is presented for solving problems of steady, two-dimensional groundwater flow with inhomogeneity boundaries. A common approach for such problems is to separate the problem domain into two homogeneous domains, search for solutions in each domain, and then attempt to match conditions, either exactly or approximately, along the inhomogeneity boundary. Here, we use classical solutions to problems with inhomogeneity boundaries with simple geometries, and map conformally the entire domain onto a new one. In this way, existing solutions are used to solve problems with more complex, and more practical, boundary geometries. The approach is general, but subject to some restrictions on the mapping functions that may be used.Using this approach, we develop explicit analytical solutions for two problems of practical interest. The first problem addresses aquifer interaction across a gap in an impermeable separating layer; flow regimes are defined and the interaction is quantified. The second solution represents flow in the vertical plane to a partially clogged stream bed that is partially penetrating the aquifer; the stream bed is modeled as a thin layer of low-permeability silt. Flow regimes for groundwater surface–water interaction are quantified analytically.     

Future use of tritium in mapping pre-bomb groundwater volumes

The tritium input to groundwater, represented as volume-weighted mean tritium concentrations in precipitation, has been close to constant in Tucson and Albuquerque since 1992, and the decrease in tritium concentrations at the tail end of the bomb tritium pulse has ceased. To determine the future usefulness of tritium measurements in southwestern North America, volume-weighted mean tritium levels in seasonal aggregate precipitation samples have been gathered from 26 sites. The averages range from 2 to 9 tritium units (TU). Tritium concentrations increase with site latitude, and possibly with distance from the coast and with site altitude, reflecting local ratios of combination of low-tritium moisture advected from the oceans with high-tritium moisture originating near the tropopause. Tritium used alone as a tool for mapping aquifer volumes containing only pre-bomb recharge to groundwater will become ambiguous when the tritium in precipitation at the end of the bomb tritium pulse decays to levels close to the analytical detection limit. At such a time, tritium in precipitation from the last one to two decades of the bomb pulse will become indistinguishable from pre-bomb recharge. The threshold of ambiguity has already arrived in coastal areas with a mean of 2 TU in precipitation and will follow in the next three decades throughout the study region. Where the mean tritium level is near 5 TU, the threshold will occur between 2025 and 2030, given a detection limit of 0.6 TU. Similar thresholds of ambiguity, with different local timing possible, apply globally.     

Isotopic and hydrochemistry spatial variation of sulfate for groundwater characterization in karstic aquifers

The Sierra Gorda aquifer is one of the most extensive of southern Spain. The main groundwater discharge is produced at its northern boundary through several high‐flow springs. In this study, stable isotopes of dissolved sulfate (δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O) and groundwater chemistry were used to determine the origin of the sulfate and to characterize the groundwater flow. We sampled the main springs, as well as other minor outlets related to perched water tables, in order to determine the different sources of SO₄^2? (e.g., dissolution of evaporites and atmospheric deposition). The substantial difference in the amount of dissolved SO₄^2? between the springs located in its northwestern part (≈25 mg/L) and those elsewhere in the northern part (≈60 mg/L) suggests zones with separate groundwater flow systems. A third group of springs, far from the northeastern boundary of the permeable outcrops, shows higher SO₄^2? content than the rest (≈125 mg/L). The isotopic range of sulfate (?0.3‰ to 14.82‰ V‐CTD) points to several sources, including dissolution of Triassic or Miocene evaporites, atmospheric deposition, and decomposition of organic material in the soil. Among these, the dissolution of Triassic gypsum—which overlies the saturated zone as a consequence of the folds and faults that deform the aquifer—is the main source of SO₄^2? (range from 12.79‰ to 14.82‰ V‐CTD). This range is typical for Triassic gypsum. The higher karstification in the western sector, together with important differences in the saturated thickness between the western and eastern sectors, would also be due to the tectonic structure and could explain the difference in SO₄^2? contents in the water. This singular arrangement may cause a higher residence time of groundwater in the eastern sector; thus, a higher contact time with Triassic evaporitic rocks is inferred. Accordingly, the stable isotopes of SO₄^2? are found to be a valuable tool for identifying areas with different flow systems in the saturated zone of karstic aquifers, as well as for evaluating aspects such as the degree of karstification .     

Multidimensional analytical models for isotope ratios in groundwater pollutant plumes of organic contaminants undergoing different biodegradation kinetics

This work presents analytical models which are able to predict contours of concentrations and isotope ratios of organic pollutants in homogeneous aquifers. Four analytical solutions of the advective–dispersive transport equation for reactive transport from the literature differing in assumptions regarding biodegradation kinetics were used. Stable isotope ratios are computed after modelling the individual reactive transport of isotopic species in the aquifer, which respond differently to fractionation by biodegradation or sorption. The main finding of this study is that the isotope ratios in the plumes are very sensitive to the assumptions underlying the biodegradation kinetics in the models. When biodegradation occurs throughout the core of the plume as first-order reaction, the transversal gradients in isotope ratios are smooth. When biodegradation occurs in a bi-molecular reaction with an electron acceptor (modelled by double-Monod kinetics), steep transversal isotope gradients are predicted. When the reaction rates approach instantaneous reaction along the plume fringes, isotope shifts in the core of the plume disappear. A model incorporating plume and fringe degradation produces the most plausible predictions of isotope ratios in this study. It is shown furthermore that isotope fractionation by sorption causes an even different pattern of isotope ratios, with positive shifts restricted to near the forerunning front of an expanding plume. The models developed in this work can serve for the validation of numerical models and may be incorporated in natural attenuation support systems such as e.g. BIOSCREEN.     

Isotopic characteristics of groundwater in Changzhou,Wuxi and Suzhou area and their implications

Based on the study of groundwater isotope(2H and 18O, 34S, 15N, 3H, 14C) in Changzhou, Wuxi and Suzhou area, it is found that the deep confined groundwater has no pollution on the whole, whereas the shallow groundwater is polluted to a different degree in the area. The deep confined aquifers (main exploitation aquifers) in Changzhou area and in Wuxi and Suzhou area likely belong to two different aquifers. The main exploitation aquifers in Changzhou area are not connected with those in Wuxi and Suzhou area, or they are connected but not expedited. The lateral run-off of groundwater is at present directed to the exploitation center because of overexploitation of the deep groundwater for a long time, but the flowing speed of groundwater is still extremely slow. The deep confined groundwater is in a close to half close state. The 14C age of groundwater varies from 10000 a BP to 38000 a BP, with the oldest groundwater found at the nearest exploitation center (along the line of three cities of Changzhou, Wuxi and Suzhou) and the youngest at the furthest exploitation center.     

Mantle plumes?

Norm Sleep suggests that it is premature to toss the concept of mantle plumes into the dustbin. The hypothesis yields testable predictions about the geological phenomena of hotspots.     

Electrification of volcanic plumes

Volcanic lightning, perhaps the most spectacular consequence of the electrification of volcanic plumes, has been implicated in the origin of life on Earth, and may also exist in other planetary atmospheres. Recent years have seen volcanic lightning detection used as part of a portfolio of developing techniques to monitor volcanic eruptions. Remote sensing measurement techniques have been used to monitor volcanic lightning, but surface observations of the atmospheric electric Potential Gradient (PG) and the charge carried on volcanic ash also show that many volcanic plumes, whilst not sufficiently electrified to produce lightning, have detectable electrification exceeding that of their surrounding environment. Electrification has only been observed associated with ash-rich explosive plumes, but there is little evidence that the composition of the ash is critical to its occurrence. Different conceptual theories for charge generation and separation in volcanic plumes have been developed to explain the disparate observations obtained, but the ash fragmentation mechanism appears to be a key parameter. It is unclear which mechanisms or combinations of electrification mechanisms dominate in different circumstances. Electrostatic forces play an important role in modulating the dry fall-out of ash from a volcanic plume. Beyond the local electrification of plumes, the higher stratospheric particle concentrations following a large explosive eruption may affect the global atmospheric electrical circuit. It is possible that this might present another, if minor, way by which large volcanic eruptions affect global climate. The direct hazard of volcanic lightning to communities is generally low compared to other aspects of volcanic activity.     

Isotopic tracing for conceptual models of groundwater hydrodynamics in multilayer aquifer systems of central and southern Tunisia

Abstract

New and previously published data sets including stable and radiogenic isotope measurements (¹⁸O, ²H, ³H, ¹³C and ¹⁴C) were used to investigate, conceptualize and compare groundwater hydrodynamics within three major multilayer aquifer systems located in central and southern Tunisia. It has been demonstrated that the investigated aquifer systems contain modern and palaeoclimatic waters. Modern groundwaters, which refer to contemporaneous and post-nuclear recharge waters, are characterized by enriched stable isotope contents, high carbon-14 activities and high to moderate tritium concentration. While palaeoclimatic groundwaters, which refer to Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene recharge waters, are distinguished by their depleted stable isotope contents, low carbon-14 activities and insignificant tritium concentrations. Established conceptual models have elucidated the groundwater hydrodynamics within the studied aquifer systems. They show that groundwater mixing occurs between end-members from the shallow and deep aquifers that migrate by downward and upward leakage towards the intermediate aquifer.

Editor D. Koutsoyiannis; Associate editor S. Faye

Citation Dassi, L. and Tarki, M., 2014. Isotopic tracing for conceptual models of groundwater hydrodynamics in multilayer aquifer systems of central and southern Tunisia. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 59 (6), 1240–1258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.892206     

Regional‐scale mapping of groundwater discharge zones using thermal satellite imagery

Mapping groundwater discharge zones at broad spatial scales remains a challenge, particularly in data sparse regions. We applied a regional scale mapping approach based on thermal remote sensing to map discharge zones in a complex watershed with a broad diversity of geological materials, land cover and topographic variation situated within the Prairie Parkland of northern Alberta, Canada. We acquired winter thermal imagery from the USGS Landsat archive to demonstrate the utility of this data source for applications that can complement both scientific and management programs. We showed that the thermally determined potential discharge areas were corroborated with hydrological (spring locations) and chemical (conservative tracers of groundwater) data. This study demonstrates how thermal remote sensing can form part of a comprehensive mapping framework to investigate groundwater resources over broad spatial scales. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Isotopic and hydrochemical insights into the groundwater characteristics along an arid to semi-humid climate gradient in China

In arid to semi-arid regions, groundwater is a critical water resource heavily relied upon, with the recharge sources and patterns being predominantly shaped by climate change and regional disparities. To compare the characteristics of groundwater in the endorheic and exorheic river basins with the climate transition zone of Gansu Province, this study uses isotopic hydrochemical analyses. This study summarizes the differences in regional groundwater recharge and evolutionary patterns. The results shows that the distribution patterns of precipitation isotopes in endorheic and exorheic river basins are opposite to those of groundwater isotopes. Specifically, the precipitation in the endorheic areas is more depleted in heavy isotopes, whereas the groundwater is more enriched. Both endorheic areas and exorheic areas exhibit similar characteristics of groundwater hydrochemical evolution, evolving from low-mineralization Mg²⁺ HC ${\mathrm{O}}_3^{-}$ recharge water to Na⁺ Cl⁻ type water with saline characteristics. The former is primarily replenished by surface water, whereas the latter is primarily replenished by precipitation. Variations in recharge patterns along with the differences in climatic conditions lead to distinct groundwater conditions in the two regions.     

Viscous entrainment by sinking plumes

Geochemical models invoking several distinct reservoirs in the mantle, with different time histories, raise important questions about the exchange of mass between them. If two of these reservoirs are the upper and lower mantle, above and below about 700 km, then sinking of cold slabs through this level is one of a number of possible ways in which mixing can occur. In addition, if slabs do penetrate the transition zone, surrounding upper layer material will be dragged downwards. We have examined the interaction of very viscous plumes, or slabs, with density and viscosity interfaces in a series of laboratory experiments using fluids of different viscosities and densities and have documented several mechanisms which can lead to significant entrainment and mixing. If a slab remains planar as it passes through a density interface, a boundary layer of lighter fluid is pulled into the lower layer and we predict the consequent mass flux. When a near-vertical slab becomes unstable to folding (as it does if it has a sufficient viscosity contrast with its surroundings and its length is greater than about five times its thickness), there is another more efficient entrainment mechanism: upper layer fluid is trapped between the folds in the slab. The effective entrainment increases as the density difference between the upper and lower layers decreases. An increase in viscosity with depth also leads to buckling instability and folding of the surrounding material into the slab material. On the other hand, when there is substantial density difference between the layers a dense slab can cease to sink through the interface but spread out along the interface because it is unstable and incorporates enough upper layer fluid between its folds to become neutrally buoyant. The range of slab behaviour occurring in the mantle is not known but we draw attention to the various possibilities and to the implications for mass flux between layers.     

Particle recycling in volcanic plumes

We have developed a new theoretical model of an eruption column that accounts for the re-entrainment of particles as they fall out of the laterally spreading umbrella cloud. The model illustrates how the mass flux of particles in the plume may increase with height in the plume, by a factor as large as 2.5 because of this recycling. Three important consequences are that (1) the critical velocity required to generate a buoyant eruption column for a given mass flux increases, (2) the total height of rise of the column may decrease, and (3) we infer that in relatively wind-free environments, for eruption columns near the conditions for collapse, the recycling of particles may lead to an unsteady oscillating motion of the plume, which, in time, may lead to the formation of interleaved fall and flow deposits.     

Comparison of ordinary kriging and artificial neural network for spatial mapping of arsenic contamination of groundwater

In this technical note, we investigate the hypothesis that ‘non-linearity matters in the spatial mapping of complex patterns of groundwater arsenic contamination’. The spatial mapping pertained to data-driven techniques of spatial interpolation based on sampling data at finite locations. Using the well known example of extensive groundwater contamination by arsenic in Bangladesh, we find that the use of a highly non-linear pattern learning technique in the form of an artificial neural network (ANN) can yield more accurate results under the same set of constraints when compared to the ordinary kriging method. One ANN and a variogram model were used to represent the spatial structure of arsenic contamination for the whole country. The probability for successful detection of a well as safe or unsafe was found to be atleast 15% larger than that by kriging under the country-wide scenario. The probability of false hopes, which is a serious issue in public health monitoring was found to be significantly lower (by more than 10%) than that by kriging.     

内蒙古高原岱海接受远程深循环地下水补给的环境同位素及水化学证据

利用环境同位素及水化学分析方法研究发现,岱海除了接受降水的直接补给之外,还接受泉水的补给.岱海周边泉水与井水的δD、δ¹⁸O值比当地降水明显贫化,泉水、井水显然不是来自于当地降水的补给;通过对岱海周边包气带土壤水中的氢氧稳定同位素分析发现,土壤水中的δD、δ¹⁸O值比当地降水值贫化,在地表埋深1 m附近,土壤中的盐分发生了累积,土壤水中的含盐量明显超过了土壤受蒸发所引起的增加量.研究表明岱海周边地区的大气降水不能入渗补给到潜水中,补给岱海的泉水不是来自于当地降水,而是具有同位素贫化特征的外源水.由此推断,在地层中可能存在一种地下水深循环的跨流域补给方式.在内蒙古高原地区,深循环地下水是维系湖泊不可或缺的补给源.     

Isotopic evidence for widespread cold‐season‐biased groundwater recharge and young streamflow across central Canada

Transformations of precipitation into groundwater and streamflow are fundamental hydrological processes, critical to irrigated agriculture, hydroelectric power generation, and ecosystem health. Our understanding of the timing of groundwater recharge and streamflow generation remains incomplete, limiting our ability to predict fresh water, nutrient, and contaminant fluxes, especially in large basins. Here, we analyze thousands of rain, snow, groundwater, and streamflow δ¹⁸O and δ²H values in the Nelson River basin, which covers 1.2 million km² of central Canada. We show that the fraction of precipitation that recharges aquifers is ~1.3–5 times higher for precipitation falling during cold months with subzero mean monthly temperatures than for precipitation falling during warmer months. The near‐ubiquity of cold‐season‐biased groundwater recharge implies that changes to winter water balances may have disproportionate impacts on annual groundwater recharge rates. We also show that young streamflow—defined as precipitation that enters a river in less than ~2.3 months—comprises ~27% of annual streamflow but varies widely among tributaries in the Nelson River basin (1–59%). Young streamflow fractions are lower in steep catchments and higher in flatter catchments such as the transboundary Red River basin. Our findings imply that flat, lower permeability, heavily tiled landscapes favor more rapid transmission of precipitation into rivers, possibly mobilizing excess soluble fertilizers and exacerbating eutrophication events in Lake Winnipeg.     

Mantle plumes control magnetic reversal frequency

Magnetic reversal frequency correlates inversely with mantle plume activity for the past 150 Ma, as measured by the volume production rate of oceanic plateaus, seamount chains, and continental flood basalts. This inverse correlation is especially striking during the long Cretaceous magnetic normal “superchron”, when mantle plume activity was at a maximum. We suggest that mantle plumes control magnetic reversal frequency by the following sequence of events. Mantle plumes rise from theD″ seismic layer just above the core/mantle boundary, thinningD″ to fuel the plumes. This increases core cooling by allowing heat to be conducted more rapidly across the core/mantle boundary. Outer core convective activity then increases to restore the abnormal heat loss, causing a decrease in magnetic reversal frequency in accord with model predictions for bothα² andαω dynamos. When core convective activity increases above a critical level, a magnetic superchron results. The pulse of plume activity that caused the Cretaceous superchron resulted in a minimum increase in core heat loss of about 1200 GW over the present-day level, which corresponds to an increase in Joule heat production of about 120 GW within the core.     

Bifurcation of volcanic plumes in a crosswind

Bent-over buoyant jets distorted by a crosscurrent develop a vortex pair structure and can bifurcate to produce two distinct lobes which diverge from one another downwind. The region downwind of the source between the lobes has relatively low proportions of discharged fluid. Factors invoked by previous workers to cause or enhance bifurcation include buoyancy, release of latent heat at the plume edge by evaporating water droplets, geometry and orientation of the source, and the encounter with a density interface on the rising path of the plume. We suggest that the pressure distribution around the vortex pair of a rising plume may initially trigger bifurcation. We also report new experimental observations confirming that bifurcation becomes stronger for stronger bent-over plumes, identifying that bifurcation can also occur for straight-edged plumes but gradually disappears for stronger plumes which form a gravity current at their final level and spread for a significant distance against the current. Observations from satellites and the ground are reviewed and confirm that volcanic plumes can show bifurcation and a large range of bifurcation angles. Many of the bifurcating plumes spread out at the tropopause level and suggest the tropopause may act on the plumes as a density interface enhancing bifurcation. Even for quite moderate bifurcation angles, the two plume lobes become rapidly separated downwind by distances of tens of kilometers. Such bifurcating plumes drifting apart can only result in bilobate tephra fall deposits. The tephra fall deposit from the 16 km elevation, SE spreading, bifurcating volcanic plume erupted on 15 May 1981 from Mt Pagan was sampled by previous workers and clearly displayed bilobate characteristics. Examples of bilobate tephra fall deposits are reviewed and their origin briefly discussed. Bilobate deposits are common and may result from many causes. Plume bifurcation should be considered one of the possible mechanisms which can account for come examples of bilobate tephra fall deposits.