Pockmarks and seafloor instability in the Olbia continental slope (northeastern Sardinian margin, Tyrrhenian Sea)

The seafloor morphology and the subsurface of the continental slope of the Olbia intraslope basin located along the eastern, passive Sardinian margin (Tyrrhenian Sea) has been mapped through the interpretation of high-resolution multibeam bathymetric data, coupled with air-gun and sparker seismic profiles. Two areas, corresponding to different physiographic domains, have been recognized along the Olbia continental slope. The upper slope domain, extending from 500 to 850 m water depth, exhibits a series of conical depressions, interpreted as pockmarks that are particularly frequent in seafloor sectors coincident with buried slope channels. In one case, they are aligned along a linear gully most likely reflecting the course of one of the abandoned channels. The location of the pockmarks thus highlights the importance of the distribution of lithologies within different sedimentary bodies in the subsurface in controlling fluid migration plumbing systems. A linear train of pockmarks is, however, present also away from the buried channels being related to a basement step, linked to a blind fault. Two bathymetric highs, interpreted as possible carbonate mounds, are found in connection with some of the pockmark fields. Although the genetic linkage of the carbonate mounds with seafloor fluid venting cannot be definitively substantiated by the lack of in situ measurements, the possibility of a close relationship is here proposed. The lower slope domain, from 850 m down to the base of the slope at 1,200 m water depth is characterized by a sudden gradient increase (from 2° to 6°) that is driven by the presence of the basin master fault that separates the continental slope from the basin plain. Here, a series of km-wide headwall scars due to mass wasting processes are evident. The landslides are characterized by rotated, relatively undeformed seismic strata, which sometimes evolve upslope into shallow-seated (less than 10 m), smaller scale failures and into headless chutes. Slope gradient may act as a major controlling factor on the seafloor instability along the Olbia continental slope; however, the association of landslides with pockmarks has been recognized in several continental slopes worldwide, thus the role of over-pressured fluids in triggering sediment failure in the Olbia slope can not be discarded. In the absence of direct ground truthing, the geological processes linked to subsurface structures and their seafloor expressions have been inferred through the comparison with similar settings where the interpretation of seafloor features from multibeam data has been substantiated with seafloor sampling and geochemical data.     

Multiple attenuation in crustal-scale imaging: examples from the TAIGER marine reflection data set

During summer of 2009, multi-channel marine seismic reflection data and wide-angle refraction data were acquired as part of the joint NSF and Taiwanese-funded TAIGER program with the goal of understanding the dynamics of arc-continent collision in Taiwan. One of the principle difficulties of crustal-scale imaging with marine reflection data such as these is the prevalent multiple contamination that obscures many of the deep crustal targets. Without effective treatment of multiples, many of the objectives of the TAIGER active source program may not be achieved. We present three profiles, one from each acquisition leg, that demonstrate the effectiveness of 2D surface-related multiple elimination (SRME) and radon filtering in attenuating much of this unwanted energy in broad ranges of water depths, seafloor topographies and lithologies. Two profiles from south of Taiwan image 3–4 km of sedimentary strata overlying moderately extended continental crust along the Eurasia continental shelf and a 5–6 km thick sedimentary section overlying thin crust consisting of faulted blocks and volcanic bodies along the continental slope. Our multiple attenuation efforts also reveal a seaward-dipping normal fault that penetrates into the upper mantle and separates thick crust of the continental shelf from thin crust of the continental slope. A profile from east of Taiwan reveals thin ocean crust of the Philippine Sea plate subducting beneath the Ryukyu trench that may be traced beneath the accretionary prism and Ryukyu forearc. These profiles demonstrate the success of our imaging strategy in the range of imaging environments spanned by the TAIGER marine reflection seismic data.     

A geomorphological seabed classification for the Weddell Sea,Antarctica

Sea floor morphology plays an important role in many scientific disciplines such as ecology, hydrology and sedimentology since geomorphic features can act as physical controls for e.g. species distribution, oceanographically flow-path estimations or sedimentation processes. In this study, we provide a terrain analysis of the Weddell Sea based on the 500 m × 500 m resolution bathymetry data provided by the mapping project IBCSO. Seventeen seabed classes are recognized at the sea floor based on a fine and broad scale Benthic Positioning Index calculation highlighting the diversity of the glacially carved shelf. Beside the morphology, slope, aspect, terrain rugosity and hillshade were calculated and supplied to the data archive PANGAEA. Applying zonal statistics to the geomorphic features identified unambiguously the shelf edge of the Weddell Sea with a width of 45–70 km and a mean depth of about 1200 m ranging from 270 m to 4300 m. A complex morphology of troughs, flat ridges, pinnacles, steep slopes, seamounts, outcrops, and narrow ridges, structures with approx. 5–7 km width, build an approx. 40–70 km long swath along the shelf edge. The study shows where scarps and depressions control the connection between shelf and abyssal and where high and low declination within the scarps e.g. occur. For evaluation purpose, 428 grain size samples were added to the seabed class map. The mean values of mud, sand and gravel of those samples falling into a single seabed class was calculated, respectively, and assigned to a sediment texture class according to a common sediment classification scheme.     

Velocity structure and gas hydrate saturation estimation on active margin off SW Taiwan inferred from seismic tomography

This paper presents results of a seismic tomography experiment carried out on the accretionary margin off southwest Taiwan. In the experiment, a seismic air gun survey was recorded on an array of 30 ocean bottom seismometers (OBS) deployed in the study area. The locations of the OBSs were determined to high accuracy by an inversion based on the shot traveltimes. A three-dimensional tomographic inversion was then carried out to determine the velocity structure for the survey area. The inversion indicates a relatively high P wave velocity (Vp) beneath topographic ridges which represent a series of thrust-cored anticlines develop in the accretionary wedge. The bottom-simulating reflectors (BSR) closely follow the seafloor and lies at 325 ± 25 m within the well-constrained region. Mean velocities range from ~1.55 km/s at the seabed to ~1.95 km/s at the BSR. We model Vp using an equation based on a modification of Wood’s equation to estimate the gas hydrate saturation. The hydrate saturation varies from 5% at the top ~200 m below the seafloor to 25% of pore space close to the BSR in the survey area.     

The Dnepr Canyon: evidence for a continuous submarine channel link between the outer shelf and the deep-sea basin of the northwestern Black Sea

Multibeam bathymetric surveys and single-beam profiles were collected in 2003–2010 from aboard the Ukrainian RV Professor Vodyanitskiy (cruises PV-58 and PV-60, 2003 and 2004), and the German RV Meteor (cruise M-72, legs 1 and 4, 2007) and RV Maria S. Merian (cruise MSM-15, leg 2, 2010) along the continental margin of the NW Black Sea. Integrating published, reprocessed and novel data has revealed the existence of a major continuous channel extending from the Dnepr paleo-delta into greater water depths. It is more than 90 km long, 1.1 km wide and up to 125 m deep. On the upper slope (120–960 m water depth), a number of smaller channels merge into the large, Y-shaped Dnepr Canyon, which then continues obliquely downslope via this submarine channel to at least 1,815 m water depth off the Crimean continental margin, NW Black Sea. The channel could be an important, hitherto unknown link between the shallow oxic and deep anoxic environments of the Black Sea, along which sediment and organic matter could be funneled into the deep-sea basin. This would have far-reaching implications for investigations dealing with marine geology and biology, climate change, as well as oil and natural gas exploitation. The unusual alignment of the channel along the margin of the basin, as well as the location and mode of channel termination in deeper waters deserve future research.     

Characteristics of outer shelf water in the East China Sea

Water mass properties along cross-sections of the Kuroshio in the East China Sea (ECS) are investigated in detail. We used temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen data from 2000 and 2002, together with historical temperature and salinity data from 1987 to 2004. Water properties were divided into two groups: high and low salinities or oxygen at temperatures warmer than 15 and 12 °C, respectively. We found the existence of outer shelf water W2, as defined by clear modes in frequency distributions of salinity and oxygen within various temperature segments. The outer shelf water was different from both Kuroshio Tropical Water (KTW) and coastal water. We mapped horizontal and vertical distributions of W2, along with W1 and KTW. The outer shelf water was distributed with density σ _t = 22.5–25.5 over a relatively broad area, from the outer continental shelf to the continental slope, particularly in autumn. Vertical distribution of the water suggests that W2 spread from the outer shelf to just the shelf side of the Kuroshio Current velocity maximum. Seasonal variations are examined with historical data along PN section over 17 years, and suggest that the appearance of W2 is distinct in summer and autumn. By comparing temperature–salinity (T–S) diagrams from Taiwan Strait and east of Taiwan, the outer shelf water (W2) originates from South China Sea Tropical Water (SCSTW), as suggested by Chen, J Geophys Res 110:C05012 (2005). The present study of the ECS clearly shows that SCSTW is transported along the east coast of Taiwan or through the Taiwan Strait into the ECS. It then spreads over a relatively wide area from the outer shelf to just the shelf side of the Kuroshio axis, and there is some horizontal mixing between SCSTW and KTW around the shelf break.     

Preliminary observations of the internal tide over the shelf west of New Zealand

Abstract

Semidiurnal variations in the depth of the thermocline observed near the shelf edge north‐west of Cape Egmont are probably caused bv an internal tide generated at around 200 m depth over the continental slope. The observations suggest that in this region an internal tide, with amplitude of about 20 m, propagates onto the shelf with a speed of approximately 0.5 m·s^?1 and a wavelength of about 22 km.     

Nematode Community Structure Along a Mediterranean Shelf-slope Gradient

Abstract. Nematode assemblages along a Mediterranean depth transect (160–1220 m) and vertically in the sediment were investigated. The station at the edge of the continental shelf (160 m) was distinctly different from those situated on the continental slope (280–1220 m). On the slope, nematode communities in the upper centimetre differed significantly from communities in the deeper sediment layers, which were dominated by fewer and larger species. Vertical segregation could be a factor explaining the coexistence of several species belonging to the genus Sabatieria , with larger species penetrating deeper into the sediment. Clear differences in buccal morphology suggest food resource partitioning as the dominant factor promoting coexistence of several species belonging to the other dominant genus, Acantholaimus .     

Seismic imaging of gas hydrates in the northernmost South China sea

Horizon velocity analysis and pre-stack depth migration of seismic profiles collected by R/V Maurice Ewing in 1995 across the accretionary prism off SW Taiwan and along the continental slope of the northernmost South China Sea were implemented for identifying gas hydrates. Similarly, a survey of 32 ocean-bottom seismometers (OBS), with a spacing of about 500 m, was conducted for exploring gas hydrates on the accretionary prism off SW Taiwan in April 2006. Travel times of head wave, refraction, reflection and converted shear wave identified from the hydrophone, vertical and horizontal components of these OBS data were applied for imaging P-wave velocity and Poisson’s ratio of hydrate-bearing sediments. In the accretionary prism off SW Taiwan, we found hydrate-bearing sediment, with a thickness of about 100–200 m, a relatively high P-wave velocity of 1.87–2.04 km/s and a relatively low Poisson’s ratio of 0.445–0.455, below anticlinal ridges near imbricate emergent thrusts in the drainage system of the Penghu and Kaoping Canyons. Free-gas layer, with a thickness of about 30–120 m, a relatively low P-wave velocity of 1.4–1.8 km/s and a relatively high Poisson’s ratio (0.47–0.48), was also observed below most of the bottom-simulating reflectors (BSR). Subsequently, based on rock physics of the three-phase effective medium, we evaluated the hydrate saturation of about 12–30% and the free-gas saturation of about 1–4%. The highest saturation (30% and 4%) of gas hydrates is found below anticlines due to N–S trending thrust-bounded folds and NE-SW thrusting and strike-slip ramps in the lower slope of the accretionary prism. We suggest that fluid may have migrated through the relay-fault array due to decollement folding and gas hydrates have been trapped in anticlines formed by the basement rises along the thrust faults. In contrast, in the rifted continental margin of the northernmost South China Sea, P-wave velocities of 1.9–2.2 km/s and 1.3–1.6 km/s, and thicknesses of about 50–200 m and 100–200 m, respectively, for a hydrate layer and a free-gas layer were imaged below the remnant and erosional ridges in the upper continental slope. High P-wave velocity of hydrate-bearing sediment below erosional ridges may also indicate high saturation of hydrates there. Normal faults due to rifting in the South China continental crust may have provided conduits for gas migration below the erosional ridges where P-wave velocity of hydrate-bearing sediment in the passive continental margin of the northernmost South China Sea is greater than that in the active accretionary prism off SW Taiwan.     

Les observations de poissons tropicaux et le réchauffement des eaux dans l'Atlantique européen

A recapitulation of the records of tropical fishes from European Atlantic waters shows that 67.6% were fishes caught from the upper slope, between approximately 200 and 600 m; 19.8% were fishes caught from the continental shelf; and 13.5% were specimens caught from the middle slope, between 700 and 1 300 m. Since 1963, the upper slope species have made regular northward range extensions off of south Portugal to north-western Ireland (about 55° 30′N), more and less rapidly, about 30 years for Cyttopsis roseus and only 6 years for Sphoeroides pachygaster. The continental shelf species, observed from 1969 but mostly from 1981, have a northward range to south-eastern Ireland (about 52° N), but 65.2% of them have been caught off the south of the Bay of Biscay. The middle slope species, recorded only from 1991 according to the development of the deep fishery, were caught between 48° N and 60° N. The northward range extension of upper slope species and the higher frequency of records of continental shelf species from the southern part of the Bay of Biscay coincide with the investigations on the warming of the south-north current in the upper slope of northern Spain and of the south French Atlantic continental shelf.     

Influence of Sedimentation on the Geomorphology of the Northwestern Continental Margin of India

Based upon the analysis of about 10,000 line km of echosounding and bathymetric data and variations in mass accumulation rate along the NW continental margin of India (between Kori creek and Mumbai), we have deduced that in the northern region (in the vicinity of the River Indus) the shelf-break occurs at a shallower depth and the slope is shallower, has the steepest gradient (<1:20), is smoother with no major features, and has reduced width (slope edge at 1450 m; width 19 km than off Mumbai). The width and depth of the slope edge gradually increases southwards, and is at maximum off DamanMumbai (slope edge depth 2900 m; width 84 km). The intensity of the occurrence of physiographic features also increases southwards. The shelf edge off Saurashtra is undulating and on the slope, regional notches and benches (the most prominent at 560 m) are observed. Further southwards off Khambhat-Mumbai, the slope is characterized by the presence of bathymetric highs and lows. We have also observed numerous features on the shelf, with a variable depth of the shelf-break. The gradient of the continental slope is also reduced from the northern region to the southern region. The variations in the gradient of the slope and the presence of distinct physiographic features in this area are examined vis-a-vis fluvial supply of the sediments into the region.     

Seismic refraction measurements on the Norwegian continental shelf between Andøya and Fugløybanken

A seismic refraction survey along nine profiles has been carried out on the Norwegian continental shelf in the area between Andøya and Fugløybanken (69°–71°N). In all but one of the profiles the shelf is found to be covered with layered sediments. Average velocities are 1.85, 2.20, 2,55, 3.25, and 3.90 km/s probably representing sediments of Cenozoic and Mesozoic ages. An average velocity of 5.25 km/s represents a basement, which probably is the seaward continuation of the onshore Caledonian rocks. Except for an apparent depressional area just north of Andøya the sedimentary layers appear to dip towards the shelf edge. On the outer part of the shelf the 2.20 km/s layer appears at the sea-floor while more complex structures are found on the inner part of the shelf.Publication No. 3 in NTNF's Continental Shelf Project.     

Structure and morphology of the west Reykjanes basin and the southeast Greenland continental margin

The continental-shelf morphology is dominated by glacial erosion and deposition. Erosion is prominent on the near-shore shelf and deposition along the outer shelf edge. The continental slope is characterized by delta-shaped progradations (glaciomarine-sediment fans) seaward of the shelf channels. Canyons cross the continental slope only in the region southeast of Cape Farewell. The continental rise is incised by a number of submarine canyons. Broad sediment ridges on the upper continental rise are probably canyon-eroded remains of extensive Plio-Pleistocene fans. A mid-ocean channel which crosses the continental rise is possibly related to the axis of maximum depth of Denmark Strait. Despite the presence of strong bottom currents, there is no indication of depositional sediment drifts along the continental margin of Greenland between Cape Farewell and Denmark Strait. This may be a function of high current velocity or low sediment load.Sea floor older than 60 m.y. B.P. is present just seaward of the Greenland continental margin implying either downwarped continental material or an early rift formed prior to the separation of Greenland from the European plate. A left lateral offset of anomalies 20 and 21 at 65°N indicates a major fracture zone related to the Greenland continental margin offset nearby.     

The sedimentary, magmatic and tectonic evolution of the southwestern South China Sea revealed by seismic stratigraphic analysis

The southwestern South China Sea represents an area of continental crust frozen immediately before the onset of seafloor spreading. Here we compile a grid of multichannel seismic reflection data to characterize the continent-ocean transition just prior to full break-up. We identify a major continental block separated from the shelf margin by a basin of hyperextended crust. Oligocene-Early Miocene rifting was followed by mild compression and inversion prior to 16 Ma, probably linked to collision between the Dangerous Grounds, a continental block to the east of the study area, and Borneo. The timing of inversion supports models of seafloor spreading continuing until around 16 Ma, rather than becoming inactive at 20 Ma. The off-shelf banks experienced uplift prior to 16 Ma in an area, which had previously been a depocenter. The off-shelf banks continued to extend after this time when the rest of the region is in a phase of thermal subsidence. Post-rift magmatism is seen in the form of scattered seamounts (~5–10 km across) within or on the edge of the deeper basins, and are dated as Late Miocene and Pliocene. They are not clearly linked to any phase of tectonic activity. Further inversion of the off-shelf banks occurred in the Pliocene resulting in a major unconformity despite the lack of brittle faulting of that age. We speculate that this is part of a wider pattern of scattered magmatism throughout the South China Sea at this time. Prograding clinoforms are seen to build out from the shelf edge in the south of the study area during the Pliocene, after 5.3 Ma, and then more towards the north and east during the Pleistocene. At the same time a trough south of the off-shelf banks is filled with >1.35 km of mostly Pleistocene sediment. While we expect the bulk of the sediment to come from the Mekong River, we also suggest additional sediment supply from Borneo and the Malay Peninsula via the Molengraaff River and its predecessors.     

南海北部海底沙波地貌

南海北部水深８０—２５０ｍ的外大陆架和上大陆坡海底，有大片沙波地貌分布，它们主要是晚更新世末次冰期低海面时遗留下来的滨海沙波、沿岸沙丘、沙堤和沙垄，属残留沙体地貌。它们明显沿着本次冰期时形成的最低海岸线两侧分布，但在现代海底底流作用下，其两翼及沙波谷部发育有次一级的小型沙波或沙纹，它们的形态细小、排列紧密，与残留沙体地貌组成复式海底沙波。这就是流动沙波，是不稳定的地质因素，对海底工程有一定危害，但根据外大陆架实测底流数据，运用计算机数学模型方法计算，表明在细沙和中细沙大面积覆盖区，海底沙波每年均以０．１６６—０．５３４ｍ的速度向深海方向迁移，移动速度相当缓慢，其对海底工程设施不会造成直接危害。     

Demersal fish and habitat associations from visual surveys on the central California shelf

In 2004, we surveyed demersal fishes and habitats on the continental shelf off central California (65–110 m depth) using the occupied submersible Delta. Our objectives were to estimate the relative abundance of habitats and to examine demersal fish species composition, diversity, density, and sizes relative to these habitats. A total of 112 transects were completed covering 32 km of seafloor. A higher density of fishes was estimated in boulder and cobble habitats than in mud and brachiopod beds. More than 80% of the fishes were small, measuring 20 cm or less in total length. Species with small maximum size (primarily pygmy rockfish, Sebastes wilsoni, and blackeye gobies, Rhinogobiops nicholsii) accounted for nearly half (49%) of the total number of 12,441 fishes. Most fishes were immature, with only 4 of 20 harvested species having more than 50% of the individuals larger than the size at first maturity. Our study area on the continental shelf may be an ontogenetic transition zone for immature fishes before they move to their adult habitat on the slope. Alternatively, historical fishing pressure may have contributed to the lack of large, mature fishes in the survey area. Understanding the importance of these habitats to fishes at various life stages will improve our ability to assess these deepwater fish stocks and effectively manage these living resources on an ecosystem basis.     

Observations of the countercurrent on the inshore side of the Kuroshio northeast of Taiwan

Intensive current measurements in the area northeast of Taiwan indicate subsurface, southwestward flow existed between the inshore edge of the Kuroshio and the East China Sea continental slope. At 70 km away from Taiwan, this countercurrent has a mean speed about 30 cm s^–1 at mid-depth. Closer to Taiwan, the flow turns along with the topography, and subjects to sidewall and bottom friction. Both the magnitude and the vertical shear of this countercurrent are comparable with that inferred from hydrographic survey. The wind field features short-period (a few days) fluctuations associated with the cold front passages, however, this is not reflected on the current records. It appears that the countercurrent is fairly steady. Together with similar reversing flow found at places much further to the north, the overall pattern seems to be a general quasi-steady feature along most part of the shelf edge of the East China Sea.     

Propagating tsunami wave and subsequent resonant response signals detected by HF radar in the Kii Channel,Japan

Signals from the tsunami waves induced by the March 11, 2011 moment magnitude (M_w) 9.0 Tohoku-Oki earthquake and from subsequent resonances were detected as radial velocity variability by a high-frequency ocean surface radar (HF radar) installed on the eastern coast of the Kii Channel, at a range of about 1000 km from the epicenter along the eastern to southern coasts of Honshu Island. A time–distance diagram of band-passed (9–200 min) radial velocity along the beam reveals that the tsunami waves propagated from the continental shelf slope to the inner channel as progressive waves for the first three waves, and then natural oscillations were excited by the waves; and that the direction of the tsunami wave propagation and the axis of the natural oscillations differed from that of the radar beam. In addition, spectral analyses of the radial velocities and sea surface heights obtained in the channel and on the continental shelf slope suggest complex natural oscillation modes excited by the tsunami waves.     

Submarine faults and slides on the continental shelf,northern Gulf of Alaska

Abstract

Submarine faults and slides or slumps of Quaternary age are potential environmental hazards on the outer continental shelf (OCS) of the northern Gulf of Alaska. Most faults that approach or reach the seafloor cut strata that may be equivalent in age to the upper Yakataga Formation (Pliocene‐Pleistocene). Along several faults, the seafloor is vertically offset from 5 to 20 m. A few faults appear to cut Holocene sediments, but none of these shows displacement at the seafloor. Submarine slides or slumps have been found in two places in the OCS region: (1) seaward of the Malaspina Glacier and Icy Bay, an area of 1200 km² with a slope of less than 0.5°, and (2) across the entire span of the Copper river prodelta, an area of 1730 km², having a slope of about 0.5°. Seismic profiles across these areas show disrupted reflectors and irregular topography commonly associated with submarine slides or slumps. Potential slide or slump areas have been delineated in areas of thick sediment accumulation and relatively steep slopes. These areas include (1) Kayak Trough, (2) parts of Hinchinbrook Entrance and Sea Valley, (3) parts of the outer shelf and upper slope between Kayak Island and Yakutat Bay, and (4) Bering Trough.     

Regional geomorphology of the continental slope of NW India: Delineation of the signatures of deep‐seated structures

Geomorphological features (derived from 16,000 lkm of echo‐sounding and bathymetric data) and deep‐seated tectonic structures of the continental margin off NW India are presented. The shelf break over the entire region occurs between 80 to 154 m water depth, and adjacent to Saurashtra and Bombay High the depth and orientation of the shelf edge show marked variations. The boundary of the slope is shallower in the northern portion (about 1450 m in the vicinity of the Indus) than in the southern region (2900 m off Bombay).

The steep slope off the Gulf of Kachchh has relatively smooth physiography due to higher input of fluvial sediment and burial of structures. The gentler slope off Saurashtra and the Bombay High area has numerous complex features, the most prominent among them being benches at depths of 180–230 m (width 2–10 km) and 650–780 m and a series of bathymetric highs and lows. Slope breaks are also observed between 400 and 600 m off Bombay and between 560 and 960 m off Saurashtra. These features are surface manifestations of the anticlinal features extending along the shelf in this region. Unevenness (order of 100–300 m) due to slumping is also observed at the base of the slope.

Based on the correlation between tectonic structures of this area and these subphysiographic features, extension of the Saurashtra Anticline onto the slope, a new strike slip fault (the southern boundary fault of Narmada graben) and an along‐shelf anticlinal structure off Saurashtra are delineated.