The ideal-typical sequence model: Its applicability to the development of transport in Saudi Arabia,the Sudan and other Middle Eastern countries

This paper is an attempt to apply the Ideal-Typical Sequence Model which was produced by Taaffe, Morrill and Gould (1963) to the development of modern transport in Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, and other Middle Eastern countries. The model and its principles are explained and then reference was made to studies produced in this connection. The finding of this paper is that the model is broadly applicable to modern transport development in Saudi Arabia but not to the Sudan, although the three principles of penetration, inter-connection and continuous process are applicable in both countries. Some modifications concerning the direction, number of the penetration lines and the motives behind the construction of those lines are made in this paper which are thought to make the model of general application to all under-developed countries irrespective of their geographical characteristics.     

First record of fossil anguines (Squamata; Anguidae) from the Oligocene and Miocene of Turkey

Fossil anguine lizard specimens from several Turkish localities are described in this paper. The material comes from ten different localities, spanning a large geographic area consisting of both parts of the European Turkey and Anatolia, and ranging in age from the Oligocene to the Late Miocene. In certain cases, the generic determination was possible and, accordingly, members of Ophisaurus and Anguis were identified and described in detail. The specimens of Anguis, found in different, Middle and Late Miocene localities from Anatolia, represent two of only a few fossil occurrences of this taxon. Moreover, the material reported herein represents the oldest occurrences of anguine lizards, not only from Turkey, but from southeastern Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean basin as a whole. These rare records provide important information about the dispersal routes of anguines from Europe to Asia and significantly enhance our understanding of their biogeography.     

Geodynamics and underlying bedrock of the magnetically active crust layer of the Lut block,Eastern Iran

The Curie point depth map of Eastern Iran was constituted from spectral analysis of the aeromagnetic data. The reduction to pole (RTP) was applied to the magnetic anomaly data. The Curie point depth values from 165 overlapping blocks, 100 × 100 km in size, have been estimated. The Curie point depth method provides a relationship between the 2-D FFT power spectrum of the magnetic anomalies and the depth of magnetic sources by transforming the spatial data into the frequency domain. The centroid and top depth of the magnetic sources (respectively Z₀ and Z_t) is calculated from radially averaged log power spectrum for each block. Finally, the Curie point depth of Eastern Iran is obtained by Z_b = 2Z₀–Z_t. The highest value of 24 km is located in eastern and western boundaries of the Lut block, and the lowest value of 12 km is located at north of study area. The shallow depths in the Curie-point depth map are well correlated with the young volcanic areas and geothermal potential fields. Geothermal gradient ranging from 24 to 45°C/km. The deduced thermal structure in eastern Iran has a relationship with orogenic collapse associated with delamination of thickened lithospheric root between the Lut and Afghan continental blocks.     

Microfacies analysis of larger benthic foraminifera-dominated Middle Eocene carbonates: a palaeoenvironmental case study from Meghalaya,N-E India (Eastern Tethys)

Larger benthic foraminifera (LBF) show significant abundance and diversity in the Palaeogene carbonate sediments of Meghalaya, N-E India, but have previously received less attention from the palaeoenvironmental perspective. LBF are important contributors to recent as well as fossil shallow marine, tropical carbonate settings. They find wide application in biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. The larger foraminiferal turnover (LFT) during the Palaeocene-Eocene transition is very important with respect to their evolution in several parts of the world including the Eastern Tethys. The present microfacies analysis documents the status of LBF in the Middle Eocene sediments from the Prang Formation of the Sylhet Limestone Group in Meghalaya, N-E India. Five major facies types (MFTs)—miliolid grainstone-packstones, alveolinid-rotaliid grainstone-packstones, nummulitid-alveolinid grainstone-packstones, coralline algal-nummulitid packstone-wackestones and coralline algal wackestones have been recorded in the current study. Evaluation of the palaeoenvironmental parameters aids in understanding the seascape of this Eastern Tethyan domain. It is suggested that an oligotrophic nutrient regime supported the rapid evolution and dominance of the LBF. Most notable is the prolific augmentation in Alveolina and Nummulites populations. High surface water temperatures during the Late Palaeocene-Early Eocene global warming episode possibly persisted to a certain level during the Middle Eocene and continued to favour the larger foraminifera as the major carbonate producers instead of the vulnerable corals.     

First evidence for episodic flooding events in the arid interior of central Saudi Arabia over the last 60 ka

Although evidence for Quaternary environmental changes in the Arabian Peninsula is now growing, research has mostly been conducted in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and in the Sultanate of Oman. There have been virtually no recent studies in Saudi Arabia, especially in the central region such as around Al‐Quwaiayh. In this area there are a series of outwash plains developed along the eastern edge of the Arabian Shield that formed in the late Quaternary. Four sedimentary sections, which are representative of the deposits that have accumulated, have been studied and five luminescence ages obtained. These are the first luminescence ages acquired from Quaternary sediments in central Saudi Arabia. The preserved fluvial deposits in the study area have formed during humid events at ca. 54 ka, ca. 39 ka and ca. 0.8 ka. In more recent times aeolian sands have been encroaching on to the distal parts of the outwash plains. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Development and changes in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia

Due to a particularly favourable geologic and tectonic setting in the Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia has the world largest oil reserves and is the third largest oil-producing nation in the world. Based on oil and gas revenues, the Kingdom experienced an overwhelming development during the last few decades, changing a desert country into a modern industrialized nation. Main characteristics of spatial changes are based on processes of urbanization and industrialization, on agricultural reclamations and infra-structural developments. Since the natural environment of deserts and semi-deserts in the Eastern Province is determined by an extremely sensitive equilibrium, environmental impacts, shortages in water resources, as well as limited human resources are causing basic problems, which will influence future developments.     

Spatial information of soil hydraulic conductivity and performance of cokriging over kriging in a semi-arid basin scale

Unlike the studies in small parcels by systematic measurements, the spatial variability of soil properties is expected to increase in those over relatively large areas or scales. Spatial variability of soil hydraulic conductivity (K _h) is of significance for the environmental processes, such as soil erosion, plant growth, transport of the plant nutrients in a soil profile and ground water levels. However, its variability is not much and sufficiently known at basin scale. A study of testing the performance of cokriging of K _h compared with that of kriging was conducted in the catchment area of Sarayköy II Irrigation Dam in Cank?r?, Turkey. A total of 300 soil surface samples (0–10 cm) were collected from the catchment with irregular intervals. Of the selected soil properties, because the water-stable aggregates (WSA) indicated the highest relationship with the hydraulic conductivity by the Pearson correlation analysis, it is used as an auxiliary variable to predict K _h by the cokriging procedure. In addition, the sampling density was reduced randomly to n = 175, n = 150, n = 75 and n = 50 for K _h to determine if the superiority of cokriging over kriging would exist. Statistically, the results showed that all reduced K _h was as good as the complete K _h when its auxiliary relations with WSA were used in cokriging. Particularly, the results of the “Relative Reduction in MSE” (RMSE) revealed that the reduced data set of n = 75 produced the most accurate map than the others. In this basin-scaled study, there was a clear superiority of the cokriging procedure by the reduction in data although a very undulating topography and topographically different aspects, two different land uses with non-uniform vegetation density, different parent materials and soil textures were present in the area. Hence, using the statistically significant auxiliary relationship between K _h and WSA might bring about a very useful data set for watershed hydrological researches.     

Mapping of soil organic carbon stock in the Arab countries to mitigate land degradation

Soil organic matter is a key soil component that plays a critical role in ecosystem functioning including soil productivity and resilience to erosion and drought. Most Arab countries are located in semi-arid and arid areas with dominance of drylands soils with poor organic matter content and soil quality. In line with the efforts of the FAO Global Soil Partnership (GSP) and French initiative for carbon sequestration (4 par mille); the soil organic carbon (OC) stock in the Arab countries was assessed and mapped using the FAO-UNESCO Digital Soil Map of the World (DSMW). The outputs must serve awareness raising both at the level of land users and decision makers. Results were compared with the only available national OC map, recently produced in Lebanon. Other national OC maps are under processing by the GSP and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils (ITPS) within the Global Soil OC Map. Produced maps showed low OC stock in the topsoil of more than 69% of the cultivated soils with dominance of xerosols, arenosols, and lithosols. The average soil OC stock in the Arab countries is 37 ± 36 ton/ha in the topsoil and 78 ± 69 ton/ha in the standard soil depth. The total OC stock in the arable lands of the Arab countries was estimated at 50.5 gigatons (GT) with Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Algeria placed on top. The average total OC stock per one Arab country is 0.8 ± 1.7 million tons. Large standard deviation points to different pedoclimatic conditions but also to variable management and land use history. Water erosion and chaotic urban expansion caused the irreversible loss of 25 and 53.6 GT tons of OC, respectively. With increased pressure on limited soil resources, policies must address soil conservation and C sequestration to support soil productivity and improve food production.     

Iran and the continuing crisis in the Persian Gulf

Iran is attempting to return to its pre-Islamic revolution stage of regional hegemony in the Persian Gulf. During the 1980's, Iran alienated itself from both superpowers — the USA and the USSR. More recently, Iran has began a process of regaining much of its international legitimacy. This includes the adoption of a neutral stance during the Gulf War of 1991, acting as a mediator in Afghanistan and by a — so far — policy of restrained intervention in the newly independent Central Asian Moslem states of the former Soviet Union. Iran continues to see itself as a powerful Middle Eastern state which has the right to manage affairs in the Persian Gulf. This will be difficult to achieve as long as Iran is perceived as a reactionary state by the USA and European powers, in their continued support for Saudi regional interests.     

Peri-Gondwana Late Early–Middle Cambrian trilobites from the Kuhbanan Formation in Dahu section,Kerman Province,Iran

Outcropped of the Kuhbanan Formation at Dahu, near Zarand, about 63 km north of Kerman, Iran contains peri-Gondwana trilobites. In this study, 185 trilobite samples including six species and genera were identified and described from Dahu section. This trilobite’s assemblage including Redlichia noetlingi, Redlichia sp., Kermanella kuhbananensis, Kermanella lata lata, Kermanella lata minuta, Iranoleesia pisiformis, and Iranaspis sp. based on occurrence of the trilobite fauna a late Early to Middle Cambrian (Series 2–3) is suggested for this strata. These trilobite fauna help confirm conclusions from recent geological studies that place the Kerman Basin of Iran during the Cambrian.     

Climatic constraints and potential corn production in Saudi Arabia —A study in agroclimate

A parametric crop yield model YIELD, which was developed by Prof. W. Terjung and his team at UCLA, was applied to calculate yield and water consumption for corn in Saudi Arabia. The model employs climatic and environmental data in order to simulate yield for several crops in different places all over the world. A network of 22 stations provided climatic data averaged over a period of 17 years (1967–1983). The nonclimatic data was derived from the FAO soil map of the world and the writer's personal experience. The main objectives of this paper are: [1] to determine suitable places and times for planting corn, under rainfed and irrigated conditions in Saudi Arabia; [2] to contrast irrigation water for corn in each province; and [3] to assess the potential yield for corn in the country in a year. This study concluded that highest yields of corn under fully-irrigated conditions (primary growing season) occurred in the mountainous region in SW Saudi Arabia (about 12,000 kg/ha, and more than 18,000 in Nimas) while lowest yields occurred in Tabuk and Al-Khawsh (about 4,000 kg/ha). Yields in most of the other stations were (5,000–8,000 kg/ha). Under rainfed conditions crop failed in all regions except in the SW region in which yields range between 2,000 kg/ha in Al-Khawsh and — 6,000 kg/ha as in Nimas. According to the findings of this study, the most suitable months for corn sowing in Saudi Arabia are December and January.     

Evaluation of Plecoptera (Insecta) community composition using multivariate technics in a biodiversity hotspot

Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey is a sub-ecoregion of the Caucasus Ecoregion, and its Plecoptera fauna is similar to fauna of Caucasus with unique endemic species of the region. The Caucasus Ecoregion is one of the “WWF Global 200 Ecoregions,” and it is also included in the list of top 25 hotspots in the World. Running water ecosystems of Eastern Black Sea sub-ecoregion are the most sensitive to land use change and global climate change. High-altitude aquatic ecosystems are more strongly threatened by global climate change in the region. Plecoptera constitute the most important part of the biodiversity of running waters in the region. Among the benthic macroinvertebrate taxa, Plecoptera is the best indicator of ecological conditions of running waters. The influence of environmental variables on the distribution of twenty Plecoptera species in running water ecosystems (headwaters, crenon, epirhithron, metarhithron) was assessed using canonical correspondence analysis. Sampling was carried out in 2009 and 2011. Eleven end groups were generated from the TWINSPAN analysis. Isoperla rhododendri, Isoperla grammatica, Protonemura bifida, Protonemura eumontana and Perla caucasica were closely related to pH, dissolved oxygen and riparian vegetation. Brachyptera transcaucasica transcaucasica, Nemoura martynovia, Nemoura taurica and Protonemura eumontana were related to Mg and Cu. The results show that the Plecoptera assemblage composition was affected by DO, pH, EC, temperature, nitrite, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, riparian vegetation, altitude and stream width.     

Mapping heatwave vulnerability in Korea

Analysis of event-based soil erosion magnitude with special return periods is essential to appropriately design strategies and adopt soil conservation practices. However, the spatiotemporal variations of soil erosion with different return periods, especially at national level, have not been adequately considered. Therefore, the present study aimed to zone rainfall erosivity index (R factor) as the most dynamic factor affecting variability of soil erosion rate, with different return periods in monthly, seasonal and annual time scales in Iran. Toward this attempt, the kinetic energy and maximum 30-min intensity (I ₃₀) over 12,000 available and accessible events of 70 stations were calculated during the common period of 1984–2004 and the corresponding R factor of the Universal Soil Loss Equation was then computed. Subsequently, the best-fitted frequency distributions were determined in all stations in three time scales using the EasyFit Software. The R factor was accordingly estimated for 2-, 5-, 10-, 25- and 50-year return periods. In addition, the inverse distance weighting technique was employed to determine and analyze the spatial variability patterns of R factor in different time scales using geographic information system. The results indicated that the frequency distributions fitted to study data were different in study time scales due to variability of spatiotemporal patterns of R factor. In addition, no specific spatial pattern of R factor could be recognized for different return periods and time scales. The average annual R factor was also found 1.41 MJ mm ha^?1 h^?1, whereas the respective R factor for different respective return periods of 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 years was obtained 1.47, 2.62, 3.35, 4.48 and 5.54 MJ mm ha^?1 h^?1. These findings can be used for suitable decision making and effective environmental planning for land management Iran countrywide.     

Synoptic patterns leading to hailstorm in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province,Iran

The purpose of this study was to extract the synoptic patterns of 500 mb geopotential height and the sea level pressure leading to form hail in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, Iran. To this end, at first, we explored hail occurrence in different areas of the province under investigation. Then, using sea level pressure and 500 mb geopotential height data, the patterns of hail occurrence were investigated through hierarchical clustering and Ward’s method. The level of 500 mb patterns resulting in hail formation in the area include: (1) settlement of a cut-off low pressure blocking in Turkey and Iran’s position in downstream of trough and injection of humidity coming from the Red Sea; (2) settlement of low ridge in northern Europe and Iran lying in downstream of the trough and injection of humidity of the Mediterranean Sea; (3) settlement of a cut-off low pressure in east of Europe and Iran lying in downstream of the trough; and (4) settlement of a deep trough in the Mediterranean Sea, formation of an omega-shaped blocking in Northern Europe and Iran lying in downstream of the trough. At sea level, the following patterns have caused hail formation in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province: (1) settlement of low pressure in Iran and Russia accompanying high pressure in Taklimakan Desert and east of Europe; (2) settlement of low pressure in Iran and high pressure in Egypt, northern Europe, and Taklimakan Desert; and (3) settlement of low pressure in Iran, Saudi Arabia and south of Italy and high pressure in Egypt and Siberia.     

Present environmental status of Al-Kharrar Lagoon,central of the eastern Red Sea coast,Saudi Arabia

Al-Kharrar Lagoon is a fossil back-reef basin with hypersaline waters, situated 10 km northwest of Rabigh city, central of the eastern Red Sea coast, Saudi Arabia. About 130 stations were selected for measurements of the lagoon’s water temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, and water depths during March 2014. The common macro-algae, flora, and fauna were also sampled and identified. The present study aims to investigate the prevailing environmental parameters and their impact on the macro-fauna/flora of the lagoon. The average water depth of the lagoon was around 5 m and reached maximum values of 8 and 16 at the lagoon centre and inlet, respectively. The results showed that the lagoon’s surface water temperature and salinity have mean values of 25 °C and 40‰, but with extreme values of 30 °C and 45‰ that occurred only at the enclosed intertidal areas, respectively. Their dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH were 6.5 mg/l and 8.3, respectively and the latter showing the highest values up to 8.5 in the intertidal areas dominated by the green cyanobacteria. These physicochemical conditions make the lagoon as a favorite place for the mangrove Avicennia marina, macro-algae, seagrasses (Halophila stipulacea and Cymodocea rotundata), and algal mats (Cyanobacteria) which dominate the intertidal and supratidal areas of the lagoon, tolerating extremely high-salinity and high-temperature conditions. On the other hand, corals were observed alive at the southern part of the lagoon, immediately south of the Al-Ultah Islet. Vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, and density in the lagoon’s water indicated that the water column consists of two layers throughout the year.     

Assessment of geochemical and sedimentological characteristics of atmospheric dust in Shiraz,southwest Iran

Geogenic dust is commonly believed to be one of the most important environmental problems in the Middle East.The present study investigated the geochemical characteristics of atmospheric dust particles in Shiraz City(south of Iran).Atmospheric dust samples were collected through a dry collector method by using glass trays at 10 location sites in May 2018.Elemental composition was analysed through inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry.Meteorological data showed that the dustiest days were usually in spring and summer,particularly in April.X-ray diffraction analysis of atmospheric dust samples indicated that the mineralogical composition of atmospheric dust was calcite+dolomite(24%)palygorskite(18%)quartz(14%)muscovite(13%)albite(11%)kaolinite(7%)gypsum(7%)zircon=anatase(3%).The high occurrence of palygorskite(16%-23%) could serve as a tracer of the source areas of dust storms from the desert of Iraq and Saudi Arabia to the South of Iran.Scanning electron microscopy indicated that the sizes of the collected dust varied from 50 μm to0.8 μm,but 10 μm was the predominant size.The atmospheric dust collected had prismatic trigonal-rhombohedral crystals and semi-rounded irregular shapes.Moreover,diatoms were detected in several samples,suggesting that emissions from dry-bed lakes,such as Hoor Al-Azim Wetland(located in the southwest of Iran),also contributed to the dust load.Backward trajectory simulations were performed at the date of sampling by using the NOAA HYSPLIT model.Results showed that the sources of atmospheric dust in the study area were the eastern area of Iraq,eastern desert of Saudi Arabia,Kuwait and Khuzestan Province.The Ca/Al ratio of the collected samples(1.14) was different from the upper continental crust(UCC) value(UCC=0.37),whereas Mg/A1(0.29),K/Al(0.22) and Ti/Al(0.07) ratios were close to the UCC value(0.04).This condition favours desert calcisols as the main mineral dust sources.Analysis of the crustal enrichment factor(EF_(crustal)) revealed geogenic sources for V,Mo,Pb,Sr,Cu and Zn(2),whereas anthropogenic sources affected As,Cd,Cr and Ni.     

Developing models and envelope curves for extreme floods in the Saudi Arabia arid environment

Forecasting and monitoring extreme floods in arid regions like Saudi Arabia (SA) are a big challenge for engineers and hydrologists. It is difficult to derive reliable flood estimates at any site without adequate flood measurements. Therefore, envelope curves were developed for reliable estimates of flood peaks. Relaying on recorded flood events in SA, Francou–Rodier approach is used to develop the Regional Maximum Flood (RMF) for some wadis and for SA as a whole. A total of 3121 flood events in 32 arid basins of sizes varying from 99 to more than 4500 km² are collected and analyzed. Results show that established regional coefficients (K) range between 2.76 and 5.5. The RMF formula for the Saudi regions is Q?=?251 A^0.45. The flood-frequency analysis showed that the Log-Pearson Type III is best. The extreme observed floods for the envelope curve for K?=?5.5 accommodate floods of recurrence interval ranging between 1000 and 100,000 years. The study results provide more realistic runoff peaks for a design of flood protection works for SA watersheds and for the similar environment. Consequently, it is recommended to use the developed envelope curves and models for efficient, safe and precise hydraulic structures design in SA.     

Microbiostratigraphy of the Upper Paleocene to Middle Eocene Jahrum Formation in the Folded Zagros Zone,SW Iran

The Jahrum Formation (Upper Paleocene to Middle Eocene) is composed of carbonate and dolomitic carbonate rocks in the Zagros Basin. The Zagros is located at the boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian lithosphere plates and represent the orogenic response to a collision between Eurasia and advancing Arabia during the Cenozoic. The study area is located in the northern part of Kuh-E-Tudej, ~175 km southeast of Shiraz in the Folded Zagros Zone. The Jahrum Formation at Kuh-E-Tudej, with a thickness of 190 m, consists of medium to massive bedded limestone. The following foraminiferal index species are identified in the studied section: Fallotella alavensis, Kathina sp., Miscellanea sp., Lockhartia sp.,Orbitolites shirazeinsis, Nummulites sp., Opertorbitolites sp., Dictyoconus cf. egyptiensis, Orbitolites cf. complanatus, Dictyoconus sp., Coskinolina sp., Somalina stefaninii, Discocyclina sp., Praerhapydionina sp., Coskinolina cf. liburnica, Nummulites cf. globulus, Nummulites cf. aturicus, and Alveolina sp. The age of the studied sediments ranges from Upper Paleocene to Middle Eocene. The microbiostratigraphic studies revealed four biozones based on the foraminifers identified in the studied section.     

Holocene shorelines and tectonic movements in eastern Saudi Arabia

Although Quaternary marine terraces have been reported from eastern Saudi Arabia at heights of up to 150 m, unambiguous shoreline deposits could be identified only within 3 m of present-day High Water and close to the modern shoreline. Unaltered aragonitic mollusc shells from five such deposits yielded ¹⁴C ages of 3700–6000 yr B.P. Comparison of their elevations with those of coeval deposits on the Zagros coast of Iran demonstrates the relative stability of the Saudi shore of the Gulf during the late Holocene.