海城地震预报回顾与思考

四十年前的海城地震预报是一次成功预报大地震的创举,也是辽宁地震工作者为地震科学发展谱写的辉煌篇章。海城地震预报经历了从时间上"长、中、短、临"逐步逼近,地域上由面到块、到点逐步缩小的过程。现阶段地震预报还是经验性的,而海城地震预报中,我们获取的地震孕育信息接近或符合了历史经验模式,"个性"符合了"共性"。所以海城地震"幸运"的预报成功了。     

海城地震预报在国际地震学界的反响

1975年海城7.3级地震曾成为举世瞩目的事件。据统计,从1975年9月至1982年9月的七年时间里,先后有28个国家的35个团次共133位外国专家学者考察过海城地震现场。本文以下述的七个小标题概括汇编了国际地震学界对海城地震预报的反映:1.“我的猜疑消除了”;2.“一次成功的地震预报”;3.“前震群对预报海城地震具有特殊意义”;4.“地壳形变为预报提供了最早的线索”;5.“地下水异常对预报起了重要作用”;6.“动物异常在海城地震预报中开阔了科学家的眼界”;7.“地震预报还要走一段漫长的路”。     

唐山地震为什么未能预报

在成功预报的海城地震之后发生的唐山地震,为什么未能预报?这是大家十分关心的问题.地震一般发生在15公里左右的地壳中,人类目前还无法直接探测震源深处的情况;一个大地震在同一地区重复发生的周期在百年甚至千年以上,人们从事地震预报实践的机会很少;另外,地震预报是世界上的科学难题之一,甚至比癌症更难攻克.自1966年邢台地震以来,我国开展了地震预报的探索和研究,已取得海城、松潘等大地震和南黄海地震安全预报的成功事例,预报水平处在世界前列.但是,预报尚处在探索、经验阶段,人们还没有认识和掌握地震孕育、发展、发生的规律,未能找到震前必然出现而无震情况下不出现的“必震前兆”,未能掌握不同震型、不同地区的地震前兆规律.因此,目前的预     

美刊载文评论地震的预报是“一种没有把握的艺术”

据美国《时代周刊》1980年12月8日“科学栏”登载一篇题为《预报地震:一种没有把握的艺术》的署名文章,摘译如下:中国海城地震预报的成功使得科学家们认为这次预报再一次表明地震预     

关于岫岩—海城地震成功预报的思考

1引言1999年11月29日,在辽宁省岫岩-海城交界处发生了5．6级地震,震前做出了准确的预报,也采取了有效的预防措施,因而取得了显著的经济效益、社会效益和很好的政治影响,受到了中国地震局和辽宁省人民政府的表彰,也受到了广大地震工作者的关注．可以说,这次地震预报成功是我国东部经济发达、人口稠密地区继1975年海城7．3级地震预报成功后,二十多年中又一次成功的地震预报事件．这既让广大地震工作者为地震预报多年含辛茹苦地探索,终于又一次取得进展而欢欣鼓舞,同时也都在思考,为什么辽宁的地震工作者这么幸运,1975年海城地震预…     

1966年邢台地震——中国地震监测预报的里程碑

1975年2月4日,中国辽宁发布地震预报,辽宁省南部100多万人提前撤离到安全地区, 2个半小时之后,海城发生7.3级地震,震区范围内人员伤亡损失降到最低,此次地震被认为是人类历史上迄今为止,在正确预测地震的基础上,由官方组织撤离民众,明显降低损失的唯一成功案例.海城地震的成功预报,归功于1966年邢台地震后国家大力推动地震预报科学研究工作的开展.     

第三章 海城地震

1975年2月4日在中国辽宁省南部发生的海城7.3级地震,是该区有史以来最大的地震。这次地震作了较成功的预报,并采取了某些预防措施,使地震灾害大大减轻,人员伤亡大大减少。本文在“地震区域背景、地震参数及灾害情况”一节中指出了地震所处的活动构造背景、地震情况、震区的社会经济状况、人口密度以及灾害损失。在“震前对策”一节中说明,确定地震危险区后,如何组织监测、预报系统,怎样发布预报和采取防震措施。在“震时应急对策”一节中阐明,如何对待这种突然事件的发生,争取时间自救、互救,减少人员伤亡。最后三节概述了震后早期、震后晚期的抗震救灾对策,以及海城地震预报、预防所取得的社会经济效益。     

法国《研究》杂志载文《中国预报地震的最新成就》

法国《研究》(La Recherche)杂志1976年3月出版的第65期258～261页刊载了韦伯(Christian Weber)的题为《中国预报地震的最新成就》的文章,介绍了我地震预报的一般概况,其中特别称赞了海城地震预报成功的事例。文章并附有“公元前780年以来中国6级以上的地震分布图”、“海城地震前兆的主要现象”和“中国最古老的地震仪——汉末时期发明的”三个插图(略),摘要如下(文内小标题是原有的):     

1993年12月北黄海4.8级地震的前兆及中等地震的预报

北黄海4.8级地震中短期预报是辽宁省继海城地震、营口地震,彰武地震后又一次较好的预报震例。此次震前有一定的前兆显示,在总结和分析对比中等地震预报主要依据的基础上,讨论了辽宁省中强地震预报的判据。     

发展地震重点监视防御区主动探测的地震中长期预测途径

在历史进入21世纪的今天,世界上取得减灾实效的地震预报实例仍较为鲜见,1975年海城地震是世界上至今唯一一个有详细材料证实的在实践上成功预报的大地震。     

A Monte Carlo study of rainfall forecasting with a stochastic model

A procedure for short-term rainfall forecasting in real-time is developed and a study of the role of sampling on forecast ability is conducted. Ground level rainfall fields are forecasted using a stochastic space-time rainfall model in state-space form. Updating of the rainfall field in real-time is accomplished using a distributed parameter Kalman filter to optimally combine measurement information and forecast model estimates. The influence of sampling density on forecast accuracy is evaluated using a series of a simulated rainfall events generated with the same stochastic rainfall model. Sampling was conducted at five different network spatial densities. The results quantify the influence of sampling network density on real-time rainfall field forecasting. Statistical analyses of the rainfall field residuals illustrate improvement in one hour lead time forecasts at higher measurement densities.     

Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration Aims And Scope

正This journal is established by the Institute of Engineering Mechanics(IEM),China Earthquake Administration,to promote scientific exchange between Chinese and foreign scientists and engineers so as to improve the theory and practice of earthquake hazards mitigation,preparedness,and recovery.To accomplish this purpose,the journal aims to attract a balanced number of papers between Chinese and     

Solute concentrations in the lower niger river and the source rock contribution

Water quality analyses for the Niger River for the 1980/81 hydrological year are presented. The samples were collected from the main river at Lokoja, and from two main tributaries, the Kaduna and the Benue Rivers. Different water types were distinguished by the concentrations of major ions. The type Ca > Na > Mg > K - HCO₃ > SO₄ > Cl was represented at all stations during at least part of the year. Chloride was found to dominate the sulphate ion in the Kaduna and Niger, while the Benue maintained a higher concentration of sulphate relative to chloride all year round. Distinct patterns of seasonal variation in the ion concentrations were observed, particularly for the samples collected at Lokoja. Low ion concentrations were prominent during periods of high discharge, while low flow periods coincided with high dissolved ion concentrations. The contribution of rainwater to the total dissolved solids in the river waters was assessed indirectly using rainwater chemistry data from the Gulf of Guinea. The estimated rainwater contribution to the Lower Niger amounts to 5.15 mg 1^?1. Geochemical weathering calculations involving reactions of the four major minerals of granitic rocks - anorthite, biotite, albite, and K-feldspar - with carbon dioxide and water, can account for the average water composition of the Lower Niger. The proportion of the ionic components was also related to the occurrence of the respective element in the minerals.     

Scenario predictions for potential near-field and far-field earthquakes affecting Hong Kong

Historical earthquakes noted in the written records of the South China region, including Hong Kong, are not well delineated along identified prominent fault sources. Despite the lack of any definitive, localised trend in the spatial distribution of seismic activity in the region, there does appear to be some major disparity in the seismic activity rates (especially for large magnitude earthquakes) between the near-field and the far-field regions of Hong Kong. Despite this observation, previous studies of the regional seismic activity and seismic ground motion hazard (the latter using a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, PSHA) have considered very broad source zone regions, in which uniform levels of seismic activity have been assumed. The present paper further scrutinises this broad source zone (BSZ) approach by adopting a novel expanding circular disc (ECD) method to determine the rates of earthquake recurrence. Such a method is intended to counter-check previously developed models by determining earthquake scenario events in terms of magnitude–distance (M–R) pairs or combinations, having defined values of average return period. Unlike the BSZ approach, the ECD method specifically accounts for the supposed variations in the seismic activity rates between events in the near-field and the far-field of Hong Kong.The form of the developed method is particularly suited to the determination of design-level earthquake ground motions for bedrock sites, since it assumes a directionally-independent attenuation model as described in the companion paper. It is found that, whilst the BSZ approach may indicate the overall average levels of hazard that are representative of the South China region as a whole, it does not capture the large disparity in seismic activity rates between near-field and far-field events. This important feature is expected to have a significant impact upon engineering assessments of the seismic safety of structures in Hong Kong and elsewhere in the South China region. For example, it is found that for events with M≥6, the seismic activity rate (normalised by time and area) in the very far-field is around 3.5 times larger than in the near-field and medium-field of Hong Kong. The resulting design M-R combinations, covering a range of return periods from 70 to 2500 years, are limited, for very long return periods and for distant events, by the maximum credible earthquake (MCE) magnitude. Intensive research to determine this seismic hazard parameter is recommended, in order to refine further the results of the ECD analysis, which presently conservatively assumes the MCE to range between M=6 in the near-field of Hong Kong to M=8 in the very far-field, at distances greater than 280 km from Hong Kong.     

Depositional ages and characteristics of Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in southeastern Mongolia

Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales are widely distributed in southeastern Mongolia. Due to the high organic carbon content of oil shale, many geochemical studies and petroleum exploration have been conducted. Although most of the oil shales are considered to be Early Cretaceous in age, a recent study reveals that some were deposited in the Middle Jurassic. The present study aims at establishing depositional ages and characteristics of the Jurassic and Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in Mongolia. The Lower Cretaceous Shinekhudag Formation is about 250 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale and dolomite. The Middle Jurassic Eedemt Formation is about 150 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale, dolomitic marl, and siltstone. The alternations of shale and dolomite in both formations were formed by lake level changes, reflecting precipitation changes. Shales were deposited in the center of a deep lake during highstand, while dolomites were formed by primary precipitation during lowstand. Based on the radiometric age dating, the Shinekhudag Formation was deposited between 123.8 ±2.0 Ma and 118.5 ±0.9 Ma of the early Aptian. The Eedemt Formation was deposited at around 165–158 Ma of Callovian–Oxfordian. The calculated sedimentation rate of the Shinekhudag Formation is between 4.7 ±2.6 cm/ky and 10.0 ±7.6 cm/ky. Shales in the Shinekhudag Formation show micrometer‐scale lamination, consisting of algal organic matter and detrital clay mineral couplets. Given the average thickness of micro‐laminae and calculated sedimentation rate, the micro‐lamination is most likely of varve origin. Both Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales were deposited in intracontinental basins in the paleo‐Asian continent. Tectonic processes and basin evolution basically controlled the deposition of these oil shales. In addition, enhanced precipitation under humid climate during the early Aptian and the Callovian–Oxfordian was another key factor inducing the widespread oil shale deposition in Mongolia.     

THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE SOLUTION OF THE INFILTRATION PROBLEM

ABSTRACT

The one-dimensional transient downward entry of water in unsaturated soils is investigated theoretically. The mathematical equation describing the infiltration process is derived by combining Darcy's dynamic equation of motion with the continuity and thermodynamic state equations adjusted for the unsaturated flow conditions. The resulting equation together with the corresponding initial and boundary conditions constitues a mathematical initial boundary value problem requiring the solution of a nonlinear partial differential equation of the parabolic type. The volumetric water content is taken as the dependent variable and the time and the position along the vertical direction are taken as the independent variables. The governing equation is of such nature that a solution exists for t > 0 and is uniquely determined if two relationships are defined, together with the specified state of the system, at the initial time t = 0 and at the two boundaries. The two required relations are those of pressure versus permeability and pressure versus volumetric water content.

Since the partial differential equation has strong non-linear terms, a discrete solution is obtained by approximating the derivatives with finite-differences at discrete mesh points in the solution domain and integrated for the corresponding initial and boundary conditions. The use of an implicit difference scheme is employed in order to generate a system of simultaneous non-linear equations that has to be solved for each time increment. For n mesh points the two boundary conditions provide two equations and the repetition of the recurrence formula provides n—2 equations, the total being n equations for each time increment. The solution of the system is obtained by matrix inversion and particularly with a back-substitution technique. The FORTRAN statements used for obtaining the solution with an electronic digital computer (IBM 704) are presented together with the input data.

Analysis of the errors involved in the numerical solution is made and the stability and convergence of the solution of the approximate difference equation to that of the differential equation is investigated. The method applied is that of making a Fourier series expansion of a whole line of errors and then following the progress of the general term of the series expansion and also the behavior of each constituent harmonic. The errors (forming a continuous function of points in an abstract Banach space) are represented by vectors with the Fourier coefficients constituting a second Banach space. The amplification factor of the difference equation is shown to be always less than unity which guarantees the stability of the employed implicit recurrence scheme.

Experiments conducted on a vertical column packed uniformly with very fine sand, show a satisfactory agreement between the theoretically and experimentally obtained values. Many experimental results are shown in an attempt to explain the infiltration phenomenon with emphasis on the shape and movement of the wet front, and the effects of the degree of compaction, initial water content and deaired water on the infiltration rate.     

Late Permian post‐ophiolitic trondhjemites from Central Iran: a mark of subduction role in growth of Paleozoic continental crust

Late Permian trondhjemites in the Anarak area occur as stocks and dykes, which cross cut the Anarak ophiolite and its overlying metasedimentary rocks, and are exposed along the northern Anarak east–west main faults. These leucocratic intrusive bodies have enclaves of all ophiolitic units and metamorphic rocks. They are composed of amphibole, plagioclase (oligoclase), quartz, zircon and muscovite. Secondary minerals are chlorite (pycnochlorite), epidote, albite, magnetite and calcite. Whole‐rock major‐ and trace‐element analyses reveal that they are characterized by high SiO ₂ (67.8–71.0 wt%), Al ₂ O ₃ (14.9–17.1 wt%) and Na ₂ O (5.3–8.6 wt%), low K ₂ O (0.1–1.5 wt%; average: 0.8 wt%), low Rb/Sr ratio (0.01–0.40; average: 0.09), low Y (3–6 ppm), negative Ti, Nb and Ta anomalies, slightly negative or positive Eu anomaly, LREE enrichment and fractionated HREE. These rocks present 2 to 40 times enrichment in inclined chondrite‐normalized REE patterns. Geochemical characteristics of the Anarak trondhjemites all reflect melting of a mafic protolith at more than 10 kbar. The field evidence and whole‐rock chemistry reveal that these rocks have been crystallized from magmas derived from melting of subducted Anarak oceanic crust. This study reveals that melting of garnet amphibolite was an important element of continent formation in the study area.