A Remotely Operated Serial Sampler for Collecting Gas-Tight Fluid Samples

This paper describes the design, construction and preliminary test results for a gas-tight serial sampler intended to be deployed at seafloor for long-term operation to take time-series fluid samples from deep-sea environments such as cold seeps, water column and hydrothermal vents. The serial sampler is a modular system that is based on independent and identical sampling modules, which are designed to collect six 160 ml gas-tight fluid samples maintained at high pressure to a depth of 4000 meters. With two working modes, the sampler can be deployed either with seafloor cabled observatory for remote control or as a stand-alone device for autonomous operation. A prototype of the instrument has been constructed and tested on the MARS cabled observatory for two months. The laboratory and field tests proved the success of the design and construction of the serial sampler, and indicated the potential for future ocean sciences.     

A Novel Mechanical Gas-Tight Sampler for Hydrothermal Fluids

A new mechanical gas-tight sampler has been designed to collect hydrothermal fluids at the seafloor. A key feature of the sampler is the novel sample valve which is pressure balanced under deep sea, and actuated by the ram on a submersible's manipulator. The sampler is designed to be deployed at the seafloor 3000 m underwater and can be used to sample hydrothermal fluid with temperature up to 400degC. Compressed gas is used to compensate for pressure reduction of sample fluids. Simulation of the flow system was conducted to estimate the fill rate. The sampler has been tested successfully in the first Sino-American Cooperative Deep Submergence Project from August 13 to September 3, 2005.     

A new, automatic hydrothermal fluid sampler using a shape-memory alloy

A new hydrothermal fluid sampler has been developed to provide more maneuverability in underwater operation. The sampler characteristically employs a shape-memory alloy, which senses high temperature and actuates the suction mechanism. A shape-memory alloy is also used to switch the intake valve of the sampler, the intention being to avoid missampling when the inlet is in low temperature water. Prototype samplers were designed to collect the fluids hotter than 80°C. Test sampling was performed at hydrothermal vents (1372–1374 m deep) in the submarine volcano, Suiyo Seamount, Izu-Bonin Arc, northwestern Pacific. Observed fluid temperature was between 138 and 298°C, while the ambient seawater temperature was 3.1°C. Each prototype collected about 100 ml fluid as designed. The magnesium concentration in the samples indicated a seawater content of 47.5–90.8%, which indicates the entrainment of ambient seawater. Microscopic observatinn revealed the occurrence of microorganisms in the sample fluids at a population density of 10⁵ to 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹, which is 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than those in seawater at that depth. The use of the newly developed fluid sampler will greatly facilitate the collection of vent-associated microorganisms, which are of potential biological and biotechnological interest.     

A suspended-particle rosette multi-sampler for discrete biogeochemical sampling in low-particle-density waters

To enable detailed investigations of early stage hydrothermal plume formation and abiotic and biotic plume processes we developed a new oceanographic tool. The Suspended Particulate Rosette sampling system has been designed to collect geochemical and microbial samples from the rising portion of deep-sea hydrothermal plumes. It can be deployed on a remotely operated vehicle for sampling rising plumes, on a wire-deployed water rosette for spatially discrete sampling of non-buoyant hydrothermal plumes, or on a fixed mooring in a hydrothermal vent field for time series sampling. It has performed successfully during both its first mooring deployment at the East Pacific Rise and its first remotely-operated vehicle deployments along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It is currently capable of rapidly filtering 24 discrete large-water-volume samples (30–100 L per sample) for suspended particles during a single deployment (e.g. >90 L per sample at 4–7 L per minute through 1 μm pore diameter polycarbonate filters). The Suspended Particulate Rosette sampler has been designed with a long-term goal of seafloor observatory deployments, where it can be used to collect samples in response to tectonic or other events. It is compatible with in situ optical sensors, such as laser Raman or visible reflectance spectroscopy systems, enabling in situ particle analysis immediately after sample collection and before the particles alter or degrade.     

海底热液喷口流体中H2S浓度数据统计及其探测技术进展

统计了全球38个热液活动区264个热液喷口流体样品中的H_2S浓度数据,结果表明H_2S浓度主要受岩浆去气、水岩反应、相分离作用影响,而广泛使用的非气密保压采样技术不能反映原始喷口流体状态和化学组成,可能会造成H_2S浓度测量误差。为了提高测量数据的精度,一方面需要进一步发展气密保压采样技术,以提高样品的保真水平;另一方面利用深海原位电化学传感器或拉曼光谱系统进行海底原位探测也将是一个重要的发展方向。     

A comparative study of energy performance of hydrostatic seafloor sediment samplers and a new high-efficiency sampler

The hydrostatic energy of high-pressure seawater is a renewable and green energy source for ocean exploration and have been used to replace underwater electrical energy transmission through the cable and underwater battery pack to power seafloor equipment. The advantage of the energy supply method is the cost-effective and the robustness. In the paper, the energy performance of the existing hydrostatic seafloor sediment samplers powered by seawater hydrostatic energy are modelled and analyzed and compared. In view of the common shortcoming of existing technology, a novel hydrostatic seafloor sediment sampler is proposed. The model of energy conversion of the new sampler is built, and its energy performance is obtained. The analysis results indicate that the energy conversion efficiency of the novel sediment sampler is much higher than the existing ones, which means that the new sampler can collect much longer sample with the limited amount of hydrostatic energy. The seawater hydrostatic energy conversion system of the new sampler can also be used to power other seafloor equipment.     

海底沉积物保真采样技术研究进展

海底沉积物保真采样对于诸多海洋科学研究非常重要,各种研究目标的实现与沉积物样品的原位信息密切相关。本文论述了海底沉积物保真采样的目的和意义,提出了保真采样的定义,介绍了保真采样器的发展现状。论文重点讨论了保真采样器在采样过程中所涉及的共性关键技术。在此基础上,介绍了我国重力活塞式天然气水合物保真采样器的研究进展。最后,提出了关于发展我国保真采样技术的如下几点设想：1）重视沉积物低扰动技术研究,为相关海洋科学研究提供样品层次清晰、物质成分完备的沉积物样品。2）与HYACINTH计划类似,为适应不同海底地质条件,开发系列保真采样器。对松软的非岩性沉积物（从软泥、沙到砂砾）采样时,可采用重力驱动或震动冲击驱动保真采样装置;对硬质岩化的沉积物采样时,可采用回转式保真采样装置。3）重点开展沉积物样品无压降转移技术。实现实验室内的保真分析、存储和小段样品获取,开展原位压力条件下沉积物样品的地球物理学测试、地球化学、微生物、和石油物理学等研究分析。4）开展长柱状沉积物保真采样技术研究,为我国天然气水合物研究提供技术保障。     

Evidence for hydrothermal venting and sediment volcanism discharged after recent short-lived volcanic eruptions at Deception Island,Bransfield Strait,Antarctica

The results of a combined geophysical and geochemical research programme on Deception Island, an active volcano at 62°43′S, 60°57′W in Bransfield Strait (Antarctica), are presented. Ultrahigh-resolution acoustic data obtained with a TOPAS (TOpographic PArameter Sonar) system and multibeam bathymetry (Simrad EM1000) allow a detailed analysis of submarine vents in Port Foster, the submerged caldera of Deception Island. The data show three different types of seafloor structures: low-relief mounds, high-relief mounds (‘wasp nest’-like) and spire-like structures. We interpret these structures as products of sediment volcanism and seeps caused by heating and boiling of pore fluids in gas-charged sediments, and related to recent short-lived volcanic events, possibly those that occurred in 1967, 1969 and 1970. In addition, subsurface vertical disturbed zones, formed by increased amplitude and phase-inverse reflectors beneath the mounds, suggest the presence of fluidised and brecciated sediments within hydrofracture systems. A key finding of this study is that there appears to be a close relationship between the submarine mounds detected by our ultrahigh-resolution seismic study, geochemical haloes, fault-pathways and present-day thermal anomalies in surface waters. We suggest that seafloor hydrofracture systems and subsurface pipes can be re-used as fluid migration pathways, resulting in hydrothermal seeps and vents on the seafloor, possibly up to decades after coeval volcanic eruptions.     

海底热液活动的环境与产物

近23年的调查研究,使我们认识到分布于洋中脊、弧后盆地、岛弧和热点等环境的海底热液活动发育在多种围岩类型之上,包括超基性岩石、基性岩石、中性岩石、酸性岩石和沉积物。海底热液活动经历了岩浆去气作用、流体-岩石/沉积物相互作用和流体-海水混合,获取了岩浆、岩石、海水和沉积物的物质,构成了热液循环,产生了高温、低氧、高或低pH值、富含Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn、Pb、Hg、As等元素以及气体组分(甲烷、氢等)的喷口流体,影响了海水、沉积、岩石和生物环境,形成了热液柱、硫化物、含金属沉积物和蚀变岩石等热液产物,组成了海底热液系统。未来,促进海底热液活动探测技术和热液产物测试方法的发展,对海底热液区的岩石、喷口流体、热液柱、硫化物、含金属沉积物以及热液循环、生物活动的持续观测与研究,无疑将为人类探知海底地质过程及生命活动、保护海底热液环境和合理开发利用海底资源提供有力的工作支撑。     

Two-stage influences of hydrothermal fluids on pumice near the Iheya North hydrothermal field,Okinawa Trough

Hydrothermal precipitates and hydrothermal alteration products could record important information about temporal variations of seafloor hydrothermal systems. Geochemistry, mineralogy, and microscopic features of three pumice samples (T3-1, T3-2, and T3-3) near the Iheya North hydrothermal field were analyzed in this article. The results show that T3-3 sample has undergone at least two-stage influences by hydrothermal fluids. In the first stage, pure amorphous silica from hydrothermal fluid precipitated in the vesicles of all three T3 samples as a result of conductive cooling and fluid–seawater mixing. The precipitation temperatures according to oxygen isotope thermometer are approximately 13–21°C. In the second stage, T3-3 pumice underwent low-temperature hydrothermal alteration, during which the amorphous silica precipitates were redissolved, together resulting in losses of FeO and SiO₂ and gains of MgO, Pb, Zn, and Cu. Furthermore, ferruginous filamentous silica, which might be related to activities of Fe-oxidizing bacteria, was formed in the altered pumice. The transformation from pure amorphous silica precipitation to redissolution of the silica in T3-3 pumice might indicate a rise of temperature and/or decrease in silica concentrations in hydrothermal fluids, implying a changing hydrothermal environment.     

洋中脊和弧后盆地热液区热液流体B同位素组成的系统性差异

硼(B)是流体迁移元素,趋向于在热液流体中富集而成为常量元素。不同来源的B其同位素组成有着明显的区别。因此,B的含量及其同位素组成可标识热液流体(元素)的物质来源、水–岩反应程度及沉积物(元素)混入等重要过程,对海底热液活动及其成矿作用过程具有重要的示踪意义。迄今,对全球主要热液活动区热液流体中B的含量及同位素组成特征已做了大量的测试分析及研究工作,积累了丰富的资料和重要研究成果。但是,对不同地质背景(构造环境)条件下热液流体中B的含量及同位素组成特征尚缺乏系统性的对比分析,进而对造成不同环境热液流体中元素及其同位素组成的系统性差异的原因或机制尚缺乏深入的认识。本文在获取了洋中脊和弧后盆地主要热液活动区热液端元流体中B的含量及其同位素组成数据的基础上,定量估算了热液流体中B的主要来源,并对洋中脊和弧后盆地热液端元流体中B同位素组成的系统性差异进行了分析及成因探讨。结果表明,不同热液活动区热液端元流体的δ11B值都具有较大的变化范围,水–岩反应过程中不同来源B的混合是热液流体B同位素组成变化的主要原因。无沉积物覆盖的洋中脊和弧后盆地热液区热液流体中的B主要为海水与基底岩石来源B的混合,弧后盆地岩浆挥发性组分对热液系统的直接贡献及两种不同地质背景下基底岩石地球化学组成与水–岩反应程度的差异是其热液端元流体B同位素组成差异的主要原因。在有沉积物覆盖的弧后盆地热液区,热液流体中B的同位素组成与前两者之间存在显著差异,具有异常低的δ11B值,水–岩反应过程中沉积物来源B的加入是导致热液流体中δ11B值系统性降低的主要原因,沉积物的吸附作用也在一定程度上影响了热液流体的B同位素组成。有沉积物覆盖的洋中脊热液区热液流体同样受到了沉积物来源B加入的影响,具有较低的δ11B值,且相对于冲绳海槽受到了更强烈的沉积物吸附作用的影响。基于以上分析,并结合热液流体的Sr同位素组成特征,本文提出了洋中脊和弧后盆地这两大构造环境中热液流体B同位素组成系统性差异的成因模式。     

A highly concentrated region of cold hydrocarbon seeps in the southeastern Mediterranean Sea

In July 1999, we conducted a side-scan sonar survey in the southeastern Mediterranean Sea, between 300- and 800-m water depths approximately 30 nautical miles from the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip. Examination of the sonar imagery revealed numerous acoustic targets, each on the order of a few meters and surrounded by small depressions. Subsequent visual inspection of two of these targets by a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) revealed they were cold hydrocarbon seeps through which small bubbles of gas and shimmering fluids were emitted. Surrounding each cold seep were benthic communities of organisms. The ROV was used to gather video and still-camera imagery, map the surrounding microbathymetry, and collect samples of the seep structure and associated organisms. A sub-bottom profiler, which was attached to the ROV, was used to image the submerged structure of the second seep site. Further examination and analysis revealed that the seeps comprise hard deposits of calcium carbonate, and that the organisms are clams and polychaetes which are probably chemosymbiotic. The origin of the seep gas is hypothesized to be the natural decay of organic matter in the sapropel sediment, leading to the production of methane. Circulating fluids, which carry the dissolved gas through preferential pathways along small faults or bedding planes, percolate through the seafloor, precipitate calcium carbonate, release gas, and support the benthic organisms.     

Sulfur isotopic composition of seafloor hydrothermal sediment from the Jade hydrothermal field in the central Okinawa Trough and its geological significance

Eighteen samples of hydrothermal sediments from the Jade hydrothermal field in the central Okinawa Trough have been analyzed. Sulfur isotopic values for 10 sulfide samples vary from 5.2 × 10~(-3) to 7.2× 10(-3), δ~(34)S values for 7 sulfate samples vary from 16.3 × 10~(-3) to 22.3 × 10~(-3), and 1 native sulphur sample has a δ~(34)S value of 8.2× 10~(-3). The major sources of sulfur for hydrothermal sediment are intermediate to acid volcanic rocks and sea water sulfate, and it is possible that the partial sulfur of hydrothermal sediment is from the pelagic sediment by the interaction between hydrothermal fluid and sediment. The reasons of causing the distinct differences in sulfur isotopic values for sulfide samples from hydrothermal sediment ( compared with other hydrothermal fields), are the differences in the sources of sulfur, the magmatic activity and the tectonic evolution in different hydrothermal fields. The sulfur evolution is a long and complex process in the seafloor hydrothermal system     

An ancient linked fluid migration system: cold-seep deposits and sandstone intrusions in the Panoche Hills, California, USA

In central California, Maastrichtian–Danian shales of the Moreno Formation preserve a fluid migration system that developed along the western margin of the former Great Valley forearc basin. The system consists of a network of interconnected sandstone intrusions linked to overlying fossiliferous carbonates whose geochemistry, fauna, and petrology are characteristic of active cold seeps. The system is approximately 800 m thick and represents episodic migration and seafloor expulsion of fluids over at least 0.5×10⁶ years. This locality has the most extensive exposure yet discovered of a complete seep system, from underlying fluid pathways to seep deposits and associated communities.     

Improved detection and mapping of deepwater hydrocarbon seeps: optimizing multibeam echosounder seafloor backscatter acquisition and processing techniques

Marine seep hunting surveys are a current focus of hydrocarbon exploration surveys due to recent advances in offshore geophysical surveying, geochemical sampling, and analytical technologies. Hydrocarbon seeps are ephemeral, small, discrete, and therefore difficult to sample on the deep seafloor. Multibeam echosounders are an efficient seafloor exploration tool to remotely locate and map seep features. Geophysical signatures from hydrocarbon seeps are acoustically-evident in bathymetric, seafloor backscatter, midwater backscatter datasets. Interpretation of these signatures in backscatter datasets is a fundamental component of commercial seep hunting campaigns. Degradation of backscatter datasets resulting from environmental, geometric, and system noise can interfere with the detection and delineation of seeps. We present a relative backscatter intensity normalization method and an oversampling acquisition technique that can improve the geological resolvability of hydrocarbon seeps. We use Green Canyon (GC) Block 600 in the Northern Gulf of Mexico as a seep calibration site for a Kongsberg EM302 30 kHz MBES prior to the start of the Gigante seep hunting program to analyze these techniques. At GC600, we evaluate the results of a backscatter intensity normalization, assess the effectiveness of 2X seafloor coverage in resolving seep-related features in backscatter data, and determine the off-nadir detection limits of bubble plumes using the EM302. Incorporating these techniques into seep hunting surveys can improve the detectability and sampling of seafloor seeps.     

Rare earth elements in cold seep carbonates from the southwestern Dongsha area,northern South China Sea

The circulation of methane-rich fluids at cold seeps often leads to the precipitation of seep carbonates close to the seafloor along continental margins, which can be used as records of past fluid seepage. Rare earth element (REE) concentrations in seep carbonates have been used to trace fluid sources and provide information on associated biogeochemical processes at cold seeps. The REE concentrations of a series of carbonates collected from cold seeps in the southwestern Dongsha area of the northern South China Sea are analyzed in this study. The total REE contents (ΣREE) of the seep carbonates analyzed show a wide variation from 17 ppm to 523 ppm with an average ΣREE value of 54 ppm, which are higher than the typical marine carbonate values of ∼28 ppm commonly reported and also higher than those of the carbonates from other cold seep areas. A positive correlation between Fe–Mn content and ΣREE was observed. These results suggest that the seep carbonates of this study were primarily controlled by the methane-derived fluid from which they precipitated. The Fe-rich dolomite and siderite, which are the main components of the carbonates, are responsible for the enrichment of the REE. A slight positive Ce anomaly observed in the shale-normalized REE patterns of the studied seep carbonates suggests that they formed in anoxic conditions, and the correlations between Ce/Ce* and La_N/Sm_N, Ce/Ce* and Dy_N/Sm_N, Ce/Ce* and ΣREE further reveal that the REE characteristics of most seep carbonate samples preserve the original redox conditions in which they precipitated and late diagenesis has had little effect on the REE. However, the REE characteristics of sub-samples DS2-2B, DS1-6A and DS1-7A are very different from those of the other sub-samples, indicating a greater impact of late diagenesis and post-oxidation favored REE enrichment.     

Deep-sea hydrothermal microplume generation – a case study from the North Fiji Basin

A diffusely venting, low-temperature (<13 °C) hydrothermal field was detected in the North Fiji Basin, using the newly developed Hydro Bottom Station. According to the fluid chemistry (gas-rich, salt-depleted), its fluids derive from subcritical boiling in the underground and represent a condensed vapour phase strongly diluted with entrained seawater. A rhythmic expulsion of hydrothermal fluids is substantiated by microplumes observed in multiprobe profiles in the near-bottom water column. These microplumes were successfully predicted by modelling the thermal convection above the seafloor. The pattern of venting is reminiscent of geyser activity on land caused by subcritical subsurface boiling.     

A new benthic aqueous flux meter for very low to moderate discharge rates

Significant quantities of fluids and dissolved geochemical components are expelled through the sediment surface in ocean margin and sedimented ridge environments. Recently, significant interest has been generated in constraining hydrological processes in these environments, but direct measurement of fluid flow in the marine environment has proven to be difficult and many aspects of marine hydrogeology remain poorly understood. To address the need for a means to make a significant number of direct measurements in a wide range of low to moderate flow environments, we have developed a new type of benthic aqueous flux meter that is capable of measuring diffuse fluid flow through the sediment surface on the order of 0.1 mm yr⁻¹–15 m yr⁻¹ when the flow is through sediments with permeabilities of less than 10⁻⁸ cm² (typical seafloor sediments). The instrument measures fluid flow by determining the degree of dilution of a chemical tracer that is injected by an osmotic pump at a known rate into the fluids venting into or out of a collection chamber situated on the sea bed. The pump also withdraws a subsample of this tracer/fluid mix into sample coils allowing a serial record of the flow rates to be determined. Both upward and downward flow can be measured and, when flux rates are high enough to effectively flush the collecting chamber, the instruments also act as geochemical samplers. Three years of laboratory testing and field use have constrained the effects of (1) temperature, pressure, and deployment duration on osmotic pump performance, (2) dispersion/diffusion in the sample coils, and (3) deflection of flow under a range of sediment permeabilities. Recent deployments on the Kodiak and Cascadia accretionary prisms document the range and capabilities of the instrument in the field.     

Investigation into extremely acidic hydrothermal fluids off Kueishan Tao, Taiwan, China

Kueishan Tao (24°51′N, 121°55′E) is located at a tectonic junction of the fault system extension of Taiwan and the southern rifting end of the Okinawa Trough. A cluster of over 30 vents, at a water depth of about 10-20 m off the eastern tip of the tao emits hy-drothermal fluids and volcanic gases such as H2S. A sulfur chimney or mound, formed by condensation of the sulfur contained in the hydrothermal fluid, can usually be seen around the     

Variability of gas composition and flux intensity in natural marine hydrocarbon seeps

The relationship between surface bubble composition and gas flux to the atmosphere was examined at five large seeps from the Coal Oil Point seep field (Santa Barbara Channel, CA, USA). The field research was conducted using a flux buoy designed to simultaneously measure the surface bubbling gas flux and the buoy’s position with differential GPS, and to collect gas samples. Results show that the flux from the five seeps surveyed a total of 11 times ranged from 800–5,500 m³ day^?1. The spatial distribution of flux from the five seeps was well described by two lognormal distributions fitted to two flux ranges. The seafloor and sea surface composition of bubbles differed, with the seafloor bubbles containing significantly more CO₂ (3–25%) and less air (N₂ and O₂). At the sea surface, the mole fraction of N₂ correlated directly with O₂ (R ² = 0.95) and inversely with CH₄ (R ² = 0.97); the CO₂ content was reduced to the detection limit (<0.1%). These data demonstrate that the bubble composition is modified by gas exchange during ascent: dissolved air enters, and CO₂ and hydrocarbon gases leave the bubbles. The mean surface composition at the five seeps varied with water depth and gas flux, with more CH₄ and higher CH₄/N₂ ratios found in shallower seeps with higher flux. It is suggested that the CH₄/N₂ ratio is a good proxy for total or integrated gas loss from the rising bubbles, although additional study is needed before this ratio can be used quantitatively.