Influence of liquid bridges on the mechanical behaviour of polydisperse granular materials

We investigate a polydisperse granular material in which the particle interactions are governed by a capillary force law. The cohesion force for a grain‐pair with unequal diameters is expressed as an explicit function of the inter‐particle distance and the volume of the liquid bridge. This analytical relation is validated by experiments on a reference material. Then, it is completed by a rupture criterion and cast in the form of a force law that accounts for solid contact, capillary force and rupture characteristics of a grain‐pair. Finally, in order to evaluate the influence of capillary cohesion on the macroscopic behaviour, radial and axial compression tests on cylindrical assemblies of wet particles are simulated using a 3D distinct element method. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mechanical behaviour and failure of cohesive granular materials

We investigate the stress–strain behaviour and failure of a cohesive granular material both by experiments and numerical simulations. The material is an assembly of aluminium rods glued together by means of an epoxy resin. The behaviour of cohesive bonds (force–displacement relationship, failure conditions) is characterized by performing simple loading tests (tension/compression, shear…) on a couple of rods. Then, this local behaviour is introduced in a numerical code based on a discrete element method in order to perform numerical compression tests on large samples. The validation of this approach was the main goal of the present investigation that is essentially achieved by a direct comparison between the numerical results and similar experimental tests. As a basic application, we derive the macroscopic cohesion and friction characteristics of random cohesive materials by systematic numerical simulations in a biaxial geometry. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Micromechanical aspects of the shear strength of wet granular soils

This paper presents a micromechanical model for the analysis of wet granular soils at low saturation (below 30%). The discrete element method is employed to model the solid particles. The capillary water is assumed to be in a pendular state and thus exists in the form of liquid bridges at the particle‐to‐particle contacts. The resulting inter‐particle adhesion is accounted for using the toroidal approximation of the bridge. Hydraulic hysteresis is accounted for based on the possible mechanism of the formation and breakage of the liquid bridges during wetting and drying phases. Shear test computational simulations were conducted at different water contents under relatively low net normal stresses. The results of these simulations suggest that capillary‐induced attractive forces and hydraulic hysteresis play an important role in affecting the shear strength of the soil. These attractive forces produce a tensile stress that contributes to the apparent cohesion of the soil and increases its stiffness. During a drying phase, capillary‐induced tensile stresses, and hence shear strength, tend to be larger than those during a wetting phase. The proposed model appears to capture the macroscopic response of wet granular materials and revealed a number of salient micromechanical mechanisms and response patterns consistent with theoretical considerations. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental investigation on the grain-scale compression behavior of loose wet granular material

The behavior of model granular materials (glass beads) wetted by a small quantity of liquid forming capillary bridges is studied by one-dimensional compression test combined with X-ray computed tomography (XRCT) observation. Special attention is paid to obtain very loose initial states (initial void ratio of about 2.30) stabilized by capillary cohesion. XRCT-based analyses involve spherical particle detection adapted to relatively low-resolution images, which enable heterogeneities to be visualized and microstructural information to be collected. This study on an ideal material provides an insight into the macroscopic compression behavior of wet granular materials based on the microstructural change, such as pore distance distribution, coordination number of contacts, coordination number of neighbors and number of contacts per grain.

     

干湿循环条件下红砂岩软弱夹层微结构与剪切强度的关联性

极旱极涝频繁交替的极端气候事件会加剧岩土风化,降低强度,影响岩土工程结构稳定。采用直剪试验和扫描电镜技术,研究了对顺层红砂岩边坡稳定性起控制作用的软弱夹层在常温状态、干湿循环条件下（60℃风干）的力学特性及微观结构变化规律,通过相关分析、逐步回归方法得到了影响强度的微结构显著变量,构建了反映二者关联性的回归方程。研究表明：红砂岩软弱夹层剪切强度及黏聚力在1～5次循环过程中急剧降低,5次后变化趋缓,循环次数对内摩擦角变化影响微小;干湿循环次数增加,平均面积、平均直径、平均周长、定向概率熵等4个微结构参数减小,并与黏聚力呈现正相关关系;颗粒个数、平均形状系数、形态分布分形维数3个微观参数与黏聚力呈现负相关关系;分析认为,干湿循环过程中宏观力学特性蜕化及微观结构参数变化之间显著相关,干湿循环造成的岩土颗粒胀缩、碎裂、结构破坏是导致红砂岩软弱夹层剪切强度蜕化的主要原因。     

Strength of moist sand controlled by surface tension for tectonic analogue modelling

A technique has been developed to control the strength of moistened sand in a quantifiable, accurate and reproducible way, while other mechanical properties were maintained. Strength of dry sand was increased through adding a small amount of liquid. In order to control the additional cohesion of moist sand, the influence of the surface tension of the liquid was investigated. Direct shear experiments were performed on four granular materials at confining stress levels below 1 kPa. It has been found that the surface tension of the added liquid controlled the additional apparent cohesion of sand with high accuracy. The mechanical properties of moist sand show dynamic similarity towards natural brittle rock, which enables analogue modelling of fault formation, fault reactivation and tension fracture formation in the brittle regime with a controlled strength profile. Furthermore, experimental results fit well to shear strength models. From this followed the direct proportionality of the unsaturated shear strength parameter φ^b relative to the matrix suction, measured at low stress levels. Moreover, shear strength turned out to be also a function of grain size and the grain shape.     

吸力、含水率和干密度对重塑非饱和土抗剪强度影响研究

进行了一系列控制吸力、含水率和干密度的直剪试验,研究了重塑非饱和土的抗剪强度特性。试验结果表明,在试验研究的吸力范围内,非饱和土的黏聚力随吸力线性增加,而内摩擦角随吸力的变化则很小。对于控制含水率的试验,非饱和土的黏聚力和内摩擦角均随含水率增加而线性减小,且黏聚力减小的幅度更明显。干密度对非饱和土的内摩擦角几乎没有影响,黏聚力随干密度呈指数增加。对控制吸力和含水率的试验结果进行了比较,提出的考虑含水率影响的抗剪强度公式可供实际工程参考。     

Shear strength of soils containing amorphous clay-size materials in a slow-moving landslide

The shear behavior of soils rich in amorphous clay-size materials was not well reported in the literature. This study analyzed the direct shear and ring shear test data of soil samples containing 55–74% amorphous materials in the clay fraction from a slow-moving landslide in eastern Honolulu, HI. The direct shear test results showed that the undisturbed soil samples when not sheared internally had peak cohesion (c) of about 50 kPa and internal friction angle (Ø) of about 10°. This implies that the amorphous clay-size materials provided strong interparticle bonds for the soils. Breaking of the bonds during the softening process and redistribution of the amorphous clay-size materials were primarily responsible for the drop from the peak strength to the residual strength (c=0, Ø=10° from back calculation with SLOPE/W and c=0, Ø=5–7° from the ring shear test). The drained residual failure envelope is stress dependent due to the interaction of the gel-like amorphous clay-size materials with crystalline silt- and sand-sized particles. The amorphous clay-size materials act as the contact between crystalline particles. The contact increases with increasing consolidation stress, resulting in a decrease in the shear strength and the residual friction angle.     

Modeling of tensile strength on moist granular earth material at low water content

While most research has mainly focused on the volume change, flow, and shear strength of unsaturated earth materials, investigations of tensile strength of unsaturated earth materials especially granular materials have not received much attention except for cemented and clayey materials. Thus, direct tension experiments were carried out to quantify the actual magnitude of tensile strength induced by water in moist granular soil at especially low water contents (w<4%). The magnitudes of the measured tensile strength are significantly different from zero. A simple experimental tensile strength model is proposed. Practicing engineers can use this model for approximate estimation of the tensile strength of unsaturated granular soils without experiments and for precise design or analysis of most engineered facilities relying on the unsaturated granular soils in the vadose zone. The experimental data are also compared with a theoretical model developed for monosized spheres at low water contents, and its application for a real granular earth material having a variety of particles is discussed. The nonlinear behavior of the tensile strength for moist granular soil is appropriately simulated with a model.     

黏土颗粒间液桥从形成至断裂时毛细力的演化规律

通过土颗粒间形如液桥的水分毛细力认识和解释非饱和土的持水特性日趋为土力学界所关注。为研究黏土颗粒间液桥毛细力的演化规律,将黏土颗粒其简化为一对平行的片状颗粒,不考虑黏土颗粒表面的粗糙度。以Young-Laplace方程为基础,推得表征黏土颗粒间液桥毛细力关于固-液接触角和液桥体积的无量纲表达式;再令该无量纲表达式为0,绘制出固-液接触角与无量纲液桥体积的关系曲线,将1/3＜vLB＜1范围划分为液桥的断裂区、形成区和消失区,这种分区方法对描述黏土样在毛细阶段和吸附阶段的持水特性至关重要。最后,分析了液桥形成时毛细力与液桥体积和固-液接触角的关系,结果表明：当固-液接触角一定时,液桥的毛细力随其体积增大呈递增趋势,而当液桥体积一定时,其毛细力随固-液接触角增大呈先增后减的趋势。     

颗粒配比对岩石力学特征影响的数值模拟研究

岩石是矿物颗粒的集合体同时也是一种重要的非均质材料,了解它的力学特征对岩土工程及矿产开采都具有重要的指导作用。作为典型的颗粒材料,颗粒单元体的粒径分布配比必然影响着岩石的宏观力学表现。通过设置不同体积配比下的颗粒材料单元体,利用PCF2D软件模拟了相同颗粒材料单元体不同配比下岩石模型的力学特征。模拟结果表明颗粒单元体配比对岩石的力学特征有明显的影响。在模拟过程中大颗粒的配比显著影响着岩石的抗压强度,大颗粒含量相对越高,抗压强度越大。而细颗粒的配比影响着岩石的抗拉强度,细颗粒含量相对越高,抗拉强度越大,但是过多的细颗粒会降低岩石的抗拉强度。考虑岩石压缩过程中裂缝形态的影响。结果表明均匀分布、5:2:3、7:2:1的颗粒配比形成了贯穿裂缝,而1:2:7和3:2:5的颗粒配比未能形成贯穿裂缝,且细颗粒配比越高,裂缝数目出现高值的概率也越大。      

Effects of compaction moisture content on the shear strength of an unsaturated clay

This paper deals with the results of an experimental study carried out on compacted clay (PL=23%) to investigate the influence of compaction water content on the shear strength of the clay. For the measurement of shear strength parameters, direct shear tests were done on samples compacted at optimum moisture content (i.e. w=24%), at the dry side of optimum (i.e. w=18%, 20% and 22%) and at the wet side of optimum (i.e. w=26% and 28%). Thermocouple psychrometers were used for suction measurements and the suction-moisture content relationship of the soil sample was obtained. The trends for suction, angle of friction and cohesion, which change below and above optimum moisture content, were analyzed. The compacted clay behaves like a granular soil on the dry side of optimum water content; and a reduction in angle of friction and an increase in cohesion are observed as the compaction water contents approach the optimum value. The angle of friction is not affected by soaking, but after soaking cohesion of the sample reduces. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

土体直剪力学特性颗粒尺度效应理论与试验研究

土体是一种颗粒物质,其强度与变形特性具有显著的颗粒尺度效应。根据土体颗粒间的连结性状和微重比,将土颗粒划分为基体颗粒与加强颗粒。构建了反映土体内部材料信息和颗粒特征信息的土体胞元,基于应变梯度理论建立可以描述土体颗粒尺度效应的土体胞元模型。设计一系列饱和重塑土的直接快剪试验以研究土体直剪力学特性的颗粒尺度效应,并定量计算了土体胞元模型的应变梯度和內禀尺度等微细观计算参数。试验结果表明,土体的剪切屈服应力随加强颗粒体积比和平均应变梯度的增加而增加,且与加强颗粒体积比呈近似线性关系,与平均应变梯度呈抛物线关系;加强颗粒粒径对土体的剪切屈服应力影响不明显。土体剪切屈服应力的试验结果与土体胞元模型的预测结果一致。     

土体强度与变形尺度特性的理论与试验分析

土体是一种颗粒介质,其强度与变形特性具有显著的颗粒尺度效应。采用胞元土体模型和三轴抗剪试验分析了土体强度和变形的尺度效应特性。根据土体中不同尺度颗粒间相互作用表现出的聚集和摩擦效应,提出了“基体-增强颗粒”土体胞元模型,胞元体由基体和增强颗粒组成,其中基体由微小土颗粒集成,而增强颗粒为砂粒,宏观土体则简化为由许多胞元体构成的介质。引入广义球应变和广义等效应变,基于应变能导出了考虑颗粒尺度效应的应力-应变关系以及屈服应力计算公式;同时,针对增强颗粒不同粒径和体分比的土体进行一系列三轴不排水抗剪试验,给出了应力-应变和屈服应力尺度效应的测试结果。试验和理论计算结果均表明,土体强度和变形的尺度效应随增强颗粒的体分比增加以及粒径的减小而增强,由此反映出土体强度和变形显著的尺度效应;土体强度和变形尺度效应的理论预测结果与试验具有较好的一致性。     

颗粒形态对砂土抗剪强度影响的试验和离散元数值模拟

为研究颗粒形态对砂土抗剪强度的影响，制备了5组不同粒径的球形石英砂和颗粒形态不规则的实验室标准砂，并进行一系列的直剪试验；离散元法能有效地模拟砂土的离散性和不均匀性，基于高性能离散元分析软件MatDEM，通过二次开发，建立直剪试验三维模拟器，对直剪试验过程进行了数值模拟，并对比分析了试验和数值模拟结果。数据表明:(1)石英砂试样的自然休止角与其抗剪强度有着正相关性；(2)球形石英砂较实验室标准砂能更快达到峰值强度，但其值相对较低；标准砂存在着一定的黏聚力；(3)在直剪过程中，直剪盒中部颗粒的位移较周围颗粒不同，形成了明显的剪切带，并且球形石英砂试样的剪切带内颗粒的位移更小；(4)砂土直剪试验中配位数与剪应力有着良好的正相关性。本文结果表明，在相同的荷载条件下不规则颗粒形态的石英砂的抗剪强度要明显大于球形石英砂。     

杭州湾浅层储气砂土应力路径试验研究

利用GDS非饱和三轴试验系统开展了杭州湾储气砂土主动压缩、被动压缩、主动伸长与被动伸长等4种应力路径试验研究,以论证应力路径对非饱和砂土的变形性状与强度特性影响。结果表明,在卸荷应力路径被动压缩与被动伸长下非饱和砂土的应力-应变曲线呈明显的应变软化性状,而加荷应力路径主动压缩与主动伸长则分别表现为轻度应变软化及显著应变硬化变形特征;非饱和砂土的强度参数在卸荷与加荷应力路径中也存在差异,前者的有效凝聚力高于后者,而内摩擦角则相反;但其表观凝聚力与基质吸力关系在不同应力路径下均可用乘幂函数 有效描述,而试验参数a、b值不同,公式 可合理地用于表述非饱和砂土的强度特性。     

原位激发微生物成矿加固钙质砂的剪切与压缩特性研究

钙质砂广泛分布于热带海岸地区,其抗剪强度较低,在较高应力条件下极易破碎。因此,对以钙质砂为主要原料的地基材料进行加固,是海洋岩土工程领域的研究热点。基于尿素水解过程的碳酸钙成矿技术（MICP）是近年来地基材料加固领域的一项新技术。目前广泛使用的生物强化法实现MICP存在成本昂贵及环境适应性差等问题,制约了其大规模工程应用。研究采用原位生物激发MICP法对钙质砂进行加固,并对加固后试样开展直剪和一维压缩试验。结果表明：原位生物激发MICP方法可以在钙质砂中形成有效胶结,胶结水平最大可达6.26%。采用高浓度胶结溶液或增加注射次数可提高胶结水平。同时,加固后钙质砂的最大应力比、最大剪胀角以及残余内摩擦角均随胶结水平增加而显著增大,但竖向应力水平增大会抑制这些力学指标的增大。随胶结水平升高,试样压缩性显著减小;压缩后的原位激发MICP加固钙质砂中,细颗粒与粗颗粒的比例均随胶结水平的增加而增大。