3D geomechanical modeling and estimating the compaction and subsidence of Fahlian reservoir formation (X-field in SW of Iran)

A geomechanical model can reveal the mechanical behavior of rocks and be used to manage the reservoir programs in a better mode. Fluid pressure will be reduced during hydrocarbon production from a reservoir. This reduction of pressure will increase the effective stress due to overburden sediments and will cause porous media compaction and surface subsidence. In some oil fields, the compacting reservoir can support oil and gas production. However, the phenomena can also cause the loss of wells and reduced production and also cause irreparable damage to the surface structures and affect the surrounding environment. For a detailed study of the geomechanical behavior of a hydrocarbon field, a 3D numerical model to describe the reservoir geomechanical characteristics is essential. During this study, using available data and information, a coupled fluid flow-geomechanic model of Fahlian reservoir formation in X-field in SW of Iran was constructed to estimate the amount of land subsidence. According to the prepared model, in this field, the maximum amount of the vertical stress is 110 MPa and the maximum amount of the horizontal stress is 94 MPa. At last, this model is used for the prediction of reservoir compaction and subsidence of the surface. The maximum value of estimated ground subsidence in the study equals to 29 mm. It is considered that according to the obtained values of horizontal and vertical movement in the wall of different wells, those movements are not problematic for casing and well production and also the surrounding environment.     

Evidence of regional subsidence and associated interior wetland loss induced by hydrocarbon production, Gulf Coast region, USA

Analysis of remote images, elevation surveys, stratigraphic cross-sections, and hydrocarbon production data demonstrates that extensive areas of wetland loss in the northern Gulf Coast region of the United States were associated with large-volume fluid production from mature petroleum fields. Interior wetland losses at many sites in coastal Louisiana and Texas are attributed largely to accelerated land subsidence and fault reactivation induced by decreased reservoir pressures as a result of rapid or prolonged extraction of gas, oil, and associated brines. Evidence that moderately-deep hydrocarbon production has induced land-surface subsidence and reactivated faults that intersect the surface include: (1) close temporal and spatial correlation of fluid production with surficial changes including rapid subsidence of wetland sediments near producing fields, (2) measurable offsets of shallow strata across the zones of wetland loss, (3) large reductions in subsurface pressures where subsidence rates are high, (4) coincidence of orientation and direction of displacement between surface fault traces and faults that bound the reservoirs, and (5) accelerated subsidence rates near producing fields compared to subsidence rates in surrounding areas or compared to geological rates of subsidence. Based on historical trends, subsidence rates in the Gulf Coast region near producing fields most likely will decrease in the future because most petroleum fields are nearly depleted. Alternatively, continued extraction of conventional energy resources as well as potential production of alternative energy resources (geopressured-geothermal fluids) in the Gulf Coast region could increase subsidence and land losses and also contribute to inundation of areas of higher elevation.     

A Study of Stress Change and Fault Slip in Producing Gas Reservoirs Overlain by Elastic and Viscoelastic Caprocks

Geomechanical simulations were conducted to study the effects of reservoir depletion on the stability of internal and boundary faults in gas reservoirs overlain by elastic and viscoelastic salt caprocks. The numerical models were of a disk-shaped gas reservoir with idealized geometry; they mimic the structure of a gas field in the northern Netherlands which has experienced induced seismicity during gas production. The geomechanical simulations identified the area of the internal fault most sensitive to fault reactivation as coinciding with the epicenters of the largest seismic events associated with gas production. Depletion-induced shear slip is initiated at the depth of the reservoir, in the fault areas where the vertical fault throw ranges between 0.5 and 1.5 times the reservoir thickness. The extent of reactivated area differs depending on whether the caprock is viscoelastic or elastic: when it is viscoelastic, there is more down-dip shear displacement. High initial horizontal stresses in the rock salt and lower stresses in the elastic side-seal and the reservoir promote unloading of the internal and reservoir-bounding faults even before the reservoir is depleted. Particularly prone to fault reactivation are the fault zones along the interface between the reservoir rock and the salt caprock, which may already be critically stressed before depletion and are likely to be reactivated early during gas production. Stress relaxation and associated geomechanical changes affecting fault stability and ground surface deformation may continue long after production has ceased, due to the viscous behavior of the salt.     

小尺度断层定量预测及对注水开发的影响——以渤中34油田为例

大尺度断层往往控制了沉积盆地的形成和油气成藏,而小尺度断层则影响着注水开发效果和剩余油分布.大尺度断层可以通过二维或三维地震资料识别,而小尺度断层的识别则特别困难.本文提出了一种基于断层分形生长模式和三维地质力学模拟相结合来确定小尺度断层的数量、发育位置和方位的方法,并根据油田开发动态资料来确定小尺度断层对注水开发和剩余油分布的影响.将地震上识别的大尺度断层引入到三维数值力学模型中,模拟大尺度断层形成时期断裂带附近的应力扰动作用,然后结合破裂准则来建立最易发生破裂的方位和最大库伦剪切应力网格,以这两套网格和断层尺度的幂律分布确定的小尺度断层数量为约束条件来确定随机模型,对小尺度断层的密度、产状和发育位置进行定量预测.研究表明:利用分形理论和三维地质力学模拟可以对大尺度断层伴生小尺度断层进行有效预测;小尺度断层对注水开发效果和剩余油分布的影响取决于小尺度断层的规模(断距)以及小尺度断层方位和注采方向的关系.     

Land subsidence due to gas/oil production in inhomogeneous transversally anisotropic half-space by a boundary element method

In a previous paper¹ the authors have developed and implemented a new boundary element (BE) model to simulate and predict land subsidence occurring over three-dimensional gas/oil fields in a homogeneous and isotropic half-space. The approach relies on Betti's reciprocal theorem and makes use of the classical fundamental solution of Boussinesq in the framework of the theory of linear poroelasticity. The BE method is here extended to inhomogeneous, transversally anisotropic soils by the aid of a two-dimensional finite element (FE) model which provides a fundamental numerical solution for the actual multi-layer setting of the subsurface system. The new FE–BE approach is then used to simulate the subsidence caused by gas production over the deep reservoir of Campo Ravenna Terra, Ravenna (Italy) from 1950 to 1980. The results compare very favourably with the outcome from a full more expensive three-dimensional FE model of the same occurrence.     

海拉尔盆地断裂构造特征及控藏机理

基于"同一应力场不同边界条件形成不同性质断层"的构造解析原理,认为海拉尔盆地断陷期受南南东—北北西向拉张应力场作用,形成北北东和北东东向断裂,北北西向断裂明显走滑变形。断-坳转化期拉张应力场方位调整为近东西向,形成近南北向断裂,北北东、北东东和北北西向断裂扭动变形。伊敏组沉积末期盆地回返,受近东西向挤压应力场控制盆地左旋压扭变形,北北东和北东东向断裂强烈反转。依据断裂变形特征叠加关系,海拉尔盆地形成4套断裂系统:早期伸展断裂、中期张扭断裂、早期伸展中期张扭断裂和早期伸展中期张扭晚期反转断裂。断陷构造层早期伸展中期张扭反向断裂形成断层遮挡圈闭,早期伸展断裂将凹中隆和斜坡切割破碎形成断层复杂化的背斜圈闭,早期伸展断裂与中期张扭断裂交叉组合,形成复杂的断块圈闭。断-坳构造层早期伸展中期张扭晚期反转断裂呈"梳状"组合,形成典型的断块圈闭。基于断裂活动时期与成藏期耦合关系以及典型油气藏解剖的结果认为,早期伸展和早期伸展中期张扭断裂在成藏关键时刻为遮挡断层,且封闭的烃柱高度一般均小于圈闭的幅度,早期伸展中期张扭晚期反转断裂为调整型断层。基于圈闭的样式、断层在成藏中的作用及输导体系分析,海拉尔盆地断裂控藏模式分为二型4类,二型为原生油藏和次生油藏。原生油藏包括3类:一是灶缘油气侧向运移反向断层遮挡成藏模式,控藏断裂为早期伸展中期张扭断裂系统;二是灶内油气初次运移断层遮挡"箱内"成藏模式;三是灶内凹中隆油气侧向运移"弥散式"成藏模式。这两种模式控藏断裂均为早期伸展断裂。次生油藏为油气沿断裂垂向运移"伞式"成藏模式,控藏断裂为早期伸展中期张扭晚期反转断裂系统。     

Coupled finite‐element simulation of injection well testing in unconsolidated oil sands reservoir

This paper presents a finite‐element (FE) model for simulating injection well testing in unconsolidated oil sands reservoir. In injection well testing, the bottom‐hole pressure (BHP) is monitored during the injection and shut‐in period. The flow characteristics of a reservoir can be determined from transient BHP data using conventional reservoir or well‐testing analysis. However, conventional reservoir or well‐testing analysis does not consider geomechanics coupling effects. This simplified assumption has limitations when applied to unconsolidated (uncemented) oil sands reservoirs because oil sands deform and dilate subjected to pressure variation. In addition, hydraulic fracturing may occur in unconsolidated oil sands when high water injection rate is used. This research is motivated in numerical modeling of injection well testing in unconsolidated oil sands reservoir considering the geomechanics coupling effects including hydraulic fracturing. To simulate the strong anisotropy in mechanical and hydraulic behaviour of unconsolidated oil sands induced by fluid injection in injection well testing, a nonlinear stress‐dependent poro‐elasto‐plastic constitutive model together with a strain‐induced anisotropic permeability model are formulated and implemented into a 3D FE simulator. The 3D FE model is used to history match the BHP response measured from an injection well in an oil sands reservoir. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

构造应力场、地震泵和油气运移

本文从中国含油气盆地中断层发育区孔隙流体压力分布和构造应力场特征出发，以莫尔国及岩石破裂包络线理论深入探讨了不同条件下造成岩石破裂的机理，指出构造应力是油气运移的动力之一，地震泵在断裂发育区是油气沿断层作垂向运移的重要作用过程。     

Finite element analysis of land subsidence above depleted reservoirs with pore pressure gradient and total stress formulations

The solution of the poroelastic equations for predicting land subsidence above productive gas/oil fields may be addressed by the principle of virtual works using either the effective intergranular stress, with the pore pressure gradient regarded as a distributed body force, or the total stress incorporating the pore pressure. In the finite element (FE) method both approaches prove equivalent at the global assembled level. However, at the element level apparently the equivalence does not hold, and the strength source related to the pore pressure seems to generate different local forces on the element nodes. The two formulations are briefly reviewed and discussed for triangular and tetrahedral finite elements. They are shown to yield different results at the global level as well in a three‐dimensional axisymmetric porous medium if the FE integration is performed using the average element‐wise radius. A modification to both formulations is suggested which allows to correctly solve the problem of a finite reservoir with an infinite pressure gradient, i.e. with a pore pressure discontinuity on its boundary. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Water–gas dynamics and coastal land subsidence over Chioggia Mare field, northern Adriatic Sea

A major development programme comprising 15 gas fields of the northern Adriatic Sea has recently been submitted to the Ministry of the Environment, VIA Committee for the assessment of the environmental impact, by ENI-Agip, the Italian national oil company. One of the largest reservoirs is Chioggia Mare, located about 10 km offshore of the Venetian littoral, with a burial depth of 1000–1400 m. The planned gas production from this field is expected to impact the shoreline stability with a potential threat to the city of Venice, 25 km northwest of the center of Chioggia Mare. To evaluate the risk of anthropogenic land subsidence due to gas withdrawal, a numerical model was developed that predicts the compaction of both the gas-bearing formations and the lateral/bottom aquifer (water drive) during a 13-year producing and a 12-year post-production period, and the transference of the deep compaction to the ground surface. To address the uncertainty of a few important hydromechanical parameters, several scenarios are simulated and the most pessimistic predictions obtained. The modeling results show that at most 1 cm of land subsidence over 25 years may be expected at the city of Chioggia, whereas Venice is not subject to settlement. If aquifer drawdown is mediated by water injection, land subsidence is arrested 5 km offshore, with the Chioggia littoral zone experiencing a rebound of 0.6–0.7 cm. Electronic Publication     

亚诺斯前陆盆地MM油田成藏规律及成藏模式

MM油田位于南美洲哥伦比亚境内亚诺斯前陆盆地东部斜坡带,远离西部烃源灶,以微幅度、小规模岩性-构造油藏为主。本文通过研究亚诺斯盆地构造演化史并充分结合研究区地质、测井、地震等资料,总结出MM油田具有"远源复合输导,断层遮挡式成藏"的油气成藏规律,油气远源输导控制油藏丰度,构造位置控制油气聚集,断层侧向封闭控制油藏分布,圈闭大小及储层物性条件直接影响油藏规模。在研究区,卡沃内拉组C7段储层为油气侧向运移主要载体,断层为油气垂向运移主要通道,断层断距与盖层厚度之间的匹配关系及圈闭条件共同控制MM油田成藏模式,形成了断鼻、岩性-断层及断层-岩性等3种油藏类型。     

被动裂陷盆地油气分布规律及主控因素分析——以塔木察格盆地塔南坳陷为例

塔南凹陷为典型的被动裂陷盆地,构造演化历经了4个阶段:即被动裂陷阶段、主动裂陷阶段、断一坳转化阶段和坳陷阶段,形成两套含油气系统:即被动裂陷含油气系统和主动裂陷含油气系统,油气主要富集在被动裂陷含油气系统中.油气分布的主控因素概括为3个方面:1)是区域性盖层和长期发育的断层控制油气聚集的层位,盆地发育南一段上部和大一段...     

车镇凹陷大1断层对区域油气成藏控制作用的三维数值模拟

采用有限元方法模拟了大王庄地区的应力场分布状态。根据模拟结果,对比已知油气藏的分布位置,定量分析了大1断层对区域压应力分布的控制性作用,并以此为基础探讨了区域油气运聚成藏过程的主要影响因素。模型的构建主要基于车镇凹陷大王庄地区精细三维数据体,包括三个主要地层界面及近真实的大1断层产状。据此,得出以下研究结果:(1)通过调整边界条件发现,模型在NE-SW向的伸展作用下压性应力场低值区的分布与已知油藏的分布具有较好的对应关系,均围绕大1断层呈斜对称式分布;(2)认为这种油藏斜对称式分布特征应与大1断层在区域构造应力背景下对油气的沟通、疏导作用密切相关。     

大庆长垣南部两翼葡萄花油层油气运移及聚集规律

大庆长垣南部构造两翼葡萄花油层油气资源丰富,但油水分布复杂、油气聚集成藏规律认识不清,导致两翼油气资源探明率低、探明储量动用效果差。利用测井、地震、试油和地球化学分析数据,在系统油源对比基础上,结合断裂系统划分标定油源断裂,分析断裂与砂体配置关系对油气运移、聚集的控制,建立成藏模式。研究得出,大庆长垣南部葡萄花油层油主要来自于本地下伏青一段源岩,主要排烃期为明水组沉积末期及其后,因此,坳陷期形成、反转期继续活动的断层以及断陷期形成、坳陷期和反转期继续活动的断裂为主要油源断裂,油气沿油源断裂垂向运移至葡萄花油层,受砂体规模及断层侧向封闭性限制,油气在葡萄花油层中侧向运移距离较短;油源断裂为主要控藏断裂,宏观控制葡萄花油层油水平面分布,油源断裂与砂体空间配置控制着油气聚集层位及范围;油源断裂下盘、反向断阶、单斜式地垒和顺向断阶等高位断块为两翼有利油气聚集部位。     

红河断裂活动对琼东南盆地环崖南凹陷构造-沉积-成藏的影响

琼东南盆地西部环崖南凹陷的油气勘探亟需寻找接替领域.针对勘探研究中存在的3个地质问题,利用丰富的钻井和地震资料对红河断裂活动特征及其对环崖南凹陷构造-沉积-成藏的影响开展深入分析.认为红河断裂的走滑活动通过F1断层向琼东南盆地西部传递剪切应力,其演化与环崖南凹陷的构造-沉积作用具有良好的时空耦合关系,并控制了环崖南凹陷...     

地下储气库地应力模拟研究与地质完整性评估——以相国寺为例

为保障国家调峰保供需求,目前相国寺地下储气库(以下简称储气库)提出并正在进行扩压增量工程,为有效指导储气库运行上限压力优化,同时确保储气库长期安全运行,亟需对相国寺储气库开展地质体完整性评估。综合地质、地震、测井、动态监测资料以及各类室内岩芯实验数据,建立相国寺储气库三维静态及四维地质力学模型,分析了储气库地质体地质力学特征,分别对不同气藏孔隙压力特征下的盖层、底托层、断层稳定性进行应力应变模拟及评估。结果表明:梁山组盖层以及韩家店组底托层在储气库运行过程中产生的地层形变量小;5条控藏断层在储气库前期运行及现今注采条件下没有断层活化风险;模拟储气库注入压力高于原始气藏压力6 MPa时,储气库地质体完整性存在失稳风险。研究成果精细定量化评估了储气库在动态应力场影响下的运行安全,对优化储气库运行方案具有重要的指导意义。      

库车前陆盆地构造挤压作用下的天然气运聚效应探讨

以克拉2气田为例,探讨了喜马拉雅晚期强烈构造挤压作用下天然气的运聚效应。构造挤压引起流体压力的快速增加,打破前期相对稳定的流体势场;断裂带为相对低应力区,不增压或与周围岩层相比增压相对小,成为相对低势区,岩层中的天然气向断裂处汇聚,使断裂带势能增大;构造挤压使地层发生破裂和已有断裂开启,同时垂向上气势梯度也大幅度增大,深部天然气沿断裂的垂向运移动力得以增强,断裂带处汇聚天然气沿开启断裂向上部地层快速运移,并侧向充注区域性盖层下的砂体,最终在构造挤压作用下的相对低气势区聚集。喜马拉雅晚期以来库车前陆逆冲带盐下断背斜、背斜构造挤压作用下为相对低气势区,油源断裂发育,构造强烈活动使断裂开启,垂向上气势梯度大幅度增大,保存条件较好,为喜马拉雅晚期以来天然气有利聚集区。中西部前陆盆地构造挤压强烈,对天然气成藏具有重要影响。因此,开展前陆盆地构造挤压对天然气成藏的影响研究,对指导前陆盆地油气勘探具有重要的理论意义和应用。     

珠一坳陷新生代断裂体系特征及其转型机制

运用丰富的三维地震资料, 在断裂体系静态刻画与动态分析的基础上, 分析珠一坳陷新生代断裂发育的时空差异性, 并就断裂转型机制进行探讨.结果表明: 断裂体系发育差异性及转型受控于不同区域动力学背景及岩石圈的差异伸展机制.裂陷期(E₂w-E₂e), 控盆断裂由始新世的北北东、北东-北东东向向近东西、北西西向转变, 岩石圈伸展作用由宽裂谷方式向窄裂谷方式转变以及由陆(北)向海(南)的迁移, 造成了断裂活动北强南弱及其向北扩展, 推测是因为印支地块的旋转挤出和古南海的俯冲导致区域应力场由北西向顺时针转变为近南北向拉张, 进而产生了断裂的幕式特征变化; 裂后拗陷期(E₃z-N₁z-N₁h), 断裂活动微弱, 推测与岩石圈伸展中心逐渐向南迁移至南海扩张中心, 南海北部陆缘整体处于裂后沉降阶段有关; 构造活化期(N₁y-N₂w-Q), 先期北西西向、近东西向控盆断裂复活, 近东西、北东和北西向走滑断裂形成, 推测与弧-陆碰撞作用产生的北东东向右旋走滑作用有关.现今断裂体系特征体现了多期构造运动的叠加效应, 明确断裂发育的时空差异性对于珠一坳陷油气勘探具有重要指导意义.     

断裂对川西坳陷致密砂岩气藏天然气运聚的控制作用

川西坳陷致密砂岩气藏的形成和分布受断裂控制作用明显。在对断裂的分布特征、断裂性质、断层几何特征、断裂形成时间等研究的基础上,结合研究区断裂与砂体的沟通关系、已发现气藏的开发情况和失利井的综合分析,揭示了断裂对陆相领域致密气藏天然气运聚的控制作用。研究结果表明,断裂影响和控制川西坳陷致密天然气藏有5种情况:断裂发育促使深层须家河组天然气富集成藏、断裂输导使深部须家河组天然气部分破坏、断裂输导深部须家河组天然气使中浅层侏罗系成藏、断裂破坏严重使中浅层侏罗系成藏效率低和断裂不发育的部位中浅层侏罗系含气性较差。单井与断裂距离的远近对单井产能具有一定的影响,且不同级别断裂影响规律存在较大差异:I级断裂(延伸长度L≥100 km)和II级断裂((10km2 000 m,单井产能低。     

油源断裂输导和遮挡配置油气成藏有利部位预测方法及其应用

为了研究含油气盆地下生上储式油源断裂附近油气成藏规律,在油源断裂输导和遮挡配置油气运聚机制及有利部位研究的基础上,通过确定油源断裂伴生裂缝发育部位和储集油气砂体分布区,确定油源断裂输导油气有利部位;通过确定油源断裂侧向封油气部位和储集砂体分布区,确定油源断裂遮挡油气有利部位,二者结合建立了一套油源断裂输导和遮挡配置油气成藏有利部位的预测方法,并将其应用于渤海湾盆地歧口凹陷板桥断裂在始新统沙河街组一段下亚段(沙一下亚段)内输导和遮挡配置油气成藏有利部位的预测中,结果表明:板桥断裂在沙一下亚段内输导和遮挡配置油气成藏有利部位主要分布在其东北中部,少量分布在西南东部,有利于下伏始新统沙河街组三段(沙三段)源岩生成油气在沙一下亚段内运聚成藏,与目前板桥断裂附近沙一下亚段内已发现油气主要分布在其东北中部,少量分布在西南东部相吻合,表明该方法用于预测油源断裂输导和遮挡配置油气成藏有利部位是可行的。