A model of fair-weather cumulus convection

By assuming that cumulus clouds grow from patches of air that extend from the well-mixed layer bear the surface, a model of fair-weather cumulus convection is developed. The model predicts the structure of the well-mixed layer and the cloud layer; in particular, cloud cover is estimated as a function of time. The model results are compared with laboratory and field observations.     

Parameterization of a momentum source in a tropical cumulus ensemble

Summary An eddy effect of tropical deep convection on the large-scale momentum, resp vorticity budget is investigated. The process is specified by a simple parameterization approach which is based on a concept of rotating clouds exerting a momentum on the large-scale flow. The cloud rotation is associated with the thermal properties of a cloud ensemble by the principle of conservation of potential vorticity. A decomposition of cloud classes is applied in consistency with the thermodynamical parameterization scheme of Arakawa and Schubert (1974).The parameterization is tested with observations of GATE74, Phase III. The data are processed on a B/C-scale grid (55km) in a region within 9N and 16N, and between 21W and 27W, and with a vertical resolution of 41 levels. The parameterization results correspond to the observed patterns, especially in situations with strong large-scale wind shear. The findings suggest that certain large-scalle flow regimes provoke convective scale momentum generation rather than redistributing large-scale momentum by convective circulations.With 10 Figures     

Coupling mechanisms between equatorial waves and cumulus convection in an AGCM

In this study, we focused on the difference in appearances of the convectively coupled equatorial waves (CCEWs) in a simulation with the CCSR/NIES/FRCGC AGCM, between two experiments, one with and the other without implementation of the convective suppression scheme (CSS) in the prognostic Arakawa–Schubert cumulus parameterization. Realistic CCEW modes, i.e., Kelvin, Rossby, mixed Rossby-gravity (MRG), and n = 0 eastward inertio-gravity (EIG) wave modes, were reproduced in the with-CSS experiment, while only Rossby-wave-like signals appeared in the without-CSS experiment.By comparing the structures of the Kelvin wave mode and the Rossby wave mode in two runs, it was suggested that the structural difference between these two modes in conjunction with the difference in the controlling factor of cumulus convection determines the CCEW features. The CSS implemented here is such that cumulus convection is suppressed until the cloud-layer-averaged relative humidity exceeds the threshold of 80%. In the without-CSS model, only Rossby wave modes are coupled with the convection. This is because CAPE controls cumulus convection in this model, and the larger frictional convergence of Rossby wave mode prepares CAPE to generate favorable condition for cumulus convection. In the case of the with-CSS model, on the other hand, cumulus convection is largely controlled by the humidity in the free atmosphere. The convergence associated with the equatorial waves can produce the moisture anomaly to overcome the relative humidity threshold, and maintains the favorable condition for cumulus convection once it starts. In this case, not only Rossby waves but also Kelvin, MRG, and n = 0 EIG waves are reproduced more realistically. It is suggested that inclusion of some kind of mechanism connecting the free tropospheric moisture with the convection under the condition of abundant convective available potential energy could be a key factor for realistic coupling between large-scale atmospheric waves and convection.     

Greenhouse sensitivity experiments with penetrative cumulus convection and tropical cirrus albedo effects

Results are presented from two versions of a global R15 atmospheric general circulation model (GCM) coupled to a nondynamic, 50-m deep, slab ocean. Both versions include a penetrative convection scheme that has the effect of pumping more moisture higher into the troposphere. One also includes a simple prescribed functional dependence of cloud albedo in areas of high sea-surface temperature (SST) and deep convection. Previous analysis of observations has shown that in regions of high SST and deep convection, the upper-level cloud albedos increase as a result of the greater optical depth associated with increased moisture content. Based on these observations, we prescribe increased middle- and upper-level cloud albedos in regions of SST greater than 303 K where deep convection occurs. This crudely accounts for a type of cloud optical property feedback, but is well short of a computed cloud-optical property scheme. Since great uncertainty accompanies the formulation and tuning of such schemes, the prescribed albedo feedback is an intermediate step to examine basic feedbacks and sensitivities. We compare the two model versions (with earlier results from the same model with convective adjustment) to a model from the Canadian Climate Centre (CCC) having convective adjustment and a computed cloud optical properties feedback scheme and to several other GCMs. The addition of penetrative convection increases tropospheric moisture, cloud amount, and planetary albedo and decreases net solar input at the surface. However, the competing effect of increased downward infrared flux (from increased tropospheric moisture) causes a warmer surface and increased latent heat flux. Adding the prescribed cirrus albedo feedback decreases net solar input at the surface in the tropics, since the cloud albedos increase in regions of high SST and deep convection. Downward infrared radiation (from increased moisture) also increases, but this effect is overpowered by the reduced solar input in the tropics. Therefore, the surface is somewhat cooler in the tropics, latent heat flux decreases, and global average sensitivity to a doubling of CO₂ with regard to temperature and precipitation/evaporation feedback is reduced. Similar processes, evident in the CCC model with convective adjustment and a computed cloud optical properties feedback scheme, occur over a somewhat expanded latitudinal range. The addition of penetrative convection produces global effects, as does the prescribed cirrus albedo feedback, although the strongest local effects of the latter occur in the tropics.Portions of this study are supported by the Office of Health and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy as part of its Carbon Dioxide Research Program, and by the Electric Power Research Institute as part of its Model Evaluation Consortium for Climate Assessment ProjectThe National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation     

Impacts of cumulus momentum transport on MJO simulation

Vertical cumulus momentum transport is an important physical process in the tropical atmosphere and plays a key role in the evolution of the tropical atmospheric system. This paper focuses on the impact of the vertical cumulus momentum transport on Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) simulation in two global climate models (GCMs). The Tiedtke cumulus parameterization scheme is applied to both GCMs [CAM2 and Spectral Atmospheric general circulation Model of LASG/IAP (SAMIL)]. It is found that the MJO simulation ability might be influenced by the vertical cumulus momentum transport through the cumulus parameterization scheme. However, the use of vertical momentum transport in different models provides different results. In order to improve model's MJO simulation ability, we must introduce vertical cumulus momentum transport in a more reasonable way into models. Furthermore, the coherence of the parameterization and the underlying model also need to be considered.     

Validation for a tropical belt version of WRF: sensitivity tests on radiation and cumulus convection parameterizations

对基本气候态和降水日变化的分析是检验模式模拟性能、理解模式误差来源的重要手段。为了评估出对热带气候模拟效果较好的物理参数化方案组合,本文应用WRF带状区域模式,主要比较了四种积云对流参数化方案:NewTiedtke、Kain-Fritsch、newSAS、Tiedtke,和两种辐射参数化方案:RRTMG和CAM,对热带带状区域的气候模拟结果。研究表明:使用NewTiedtke积云对流参数化方案和RRTMG辐射方案的试验,表现出对气温、降水及降水日变化等综合性最好的模拟性能;NewTiedtke积云对流参数化方案能模拟出较好的降水空间分布和降水日变化位相分布特征;与RRTMG辐射方案相比,CAM辐射方案会使温度模拟偏低,特别是陆地上更明显,这种陆地上的冷偏差可能主要来源于Tmin的模拟偏冷。     

Convective momentum transport in a simple multicloud model for organized convection

从多层原始方程组出发,分析了不同尺度天气系统各层的动能水平梯度与该层地转偏差之间的关系,并对南京2010年7月22日暴雨过程的动能水平梯度模进行了诊断。结果表明：在天气尺度和α中尺度系统中,各层动能水平梯度模与该层地转偏差的模大致成正比。对天气尺度系统,该比例系数为地转参数,与该系统本身无关。对α中尺度系统,该比例系数与该系统本身有关。在β中尺度系统中,各层动能水平梯度模小于等于两项之和,而这两项中第一项与地转偏差的模成正比,另一项则为地转偏差时间导数的模。动能水平梯度大值区运动的非平衡性和爆发性强。在暴雨落区和飑线上,各层动能水平梯度的模均较大。通过对动能水平梯度模的诊断,能够从风场角度来分析各尺度系统,这对中尺度系统的诊断分析尤为重要。

     

Some characteristics of cumulus convection over the Tibetan Plateau

The diagnostic model of the cumulus convection proposed by Yanai et al. (1973) was applied to the atmosphere over the Tibetan Plateau, and used to estimate the vertical mass flux, entrainment and detrainment, excess temperature and moisture, liquid water content, and condensation and precipitation rates of highland cloud clusters. The re-sults illustrated that in clouds over the Tibetan Plateau, the water vapor condensation rate, liquid water content, and efficiency of the rain generation process are less than those in the tropics (represented by the Marshall Islands region). Therefore, the condensational latent heat released over the Tibetan Plateau, overall, is much smaller than that in the tropics. The water vapor and liquid water detrainment from shallow nonprecipitating cumulus clouds, and their entrainment into deep cumulus clouds, serve as a growing mechanism for the deep precipitating cumulus towers over the Tibetan Plateau. It should be noted that there is a stronger detrainment of liquid water from cumulus clouds and a stronger re-evaporation rate in environment. The process of the condensation-detrainment-re-evaporation-entrainment is repeatedly in progress. It would play an important role in maintaining of cumulus convection on the condition that the supply of moisture is not plentiful over the Tibetan Plateau.The analyses also showed that the cloud mass flux Mc over the Tibetan Plateau is less, and the large-scale av-erage upward motion is much less than those over the Marshall Islands. Stronger compensating downward motion in the cloud environment over the Tibetan Plateau, responsible for the area’s strong environmental heating rate was re-vealed, and would link to the stability of the South Asian High in summer.     

积云对流对涡度场和散度场的反馈作用

在涡度和散度方程简要讨论的基础上,计算得出长江中下游地区暴雨过程中涡度和散度收支各项的水平和垂直分布。结果表明,雨带附近对流层高层是源、低层是汇,尤其以散度场的不平衡更为显著,可见积云对流垂直输送涡度和散度是重要过程。     

The effect of vertical transports of heat and moisture by cumulus convection in typhoon

By utilizing the denser upper-air observations from the Okinawa region and Japanese islands during August 17－23, 1975, the vertical transports of heat and moisture by cumulus convection in the typhoon No. 7507 have been calculated. It is found that there exist a large apparent heat source (Q1) and a mois-ture sink (Q2) in the southern part of the typhoon at the disturbance, growing and mature stages. The magnitudes of the apparent heat source and moisture sink ace rather small, or turn into the apparent heat sink in the northern sector of the typhoon. In the southern part of the typhoon, the total cloud mass flux (Mc) is positive, whereas in the northern part of the typhoon Mc is negative. The above-mentioned distributions of Q1, Q2 and Mc agree well with the major cloud patterns.In the southern part of the typhoon, Q2 is positive because the drying effect is always larger than the evaporative cooling, whereas in the northern part of the typhoon, the opposite case is true because both the drying and evaporating effects of liquid water make a negative contribution to Q2.     

积云对流中扰动压力效应的诊断分析

本文用简单的结构模式分析诊断了扰动压力对积云对流的效应.结果表明:由浮力项、平流项和拖曳力项触发引起的扰动气压垂直梯度力与各对应源项具有同等量级,但与其源项的作用力方向相反.扰动气压梯度力在云的中上部为负力,它抑制了云的生长发展;在云的下部为正力,它使云向上的加速度增大.扰动气压梯度力对深对流的影响要大于对浅对流的影响.在云下部的扰动低压中心位于云边缘附近.浅对流与深对流的量级分别达-0.1— -0.2hPa和-0.2— -0.4hPa.     

Sensitivity of climate simulations to the parameterization of cumulus convection in the Canadian climate centre general circulation model

Abstract

A simplified cumulus parameterization scheme, suitable for use in GCMs, is presented. This parameterization is based on a plume ensemble concept similar to that originally proposed by Arakawa and Schubert (1974). However, it employs three assumptions which significantly simplify the formulation and implementation of the scheme. It is assumed that an ensemble of convective‐scale updrafts with associated saturated downdrafts may exist when the atmosphere is locally conditionally unstable in the lower troposphere. However, the updraft ensemble is comprised only of those plumes which are sufficiently buoyant to penetrate through this unstable layer. It is assumed that all such plumes have the same upward mass flux at the base of the convective layer. The third assumption is that moist convection, which occurs only when there is convective available potential energy (CAPE) for reversible ascent of an undiluted parcel from the sub‐cloud layer, acts to remove CAPE at an exponential rate with a specified adjustment time scale.

The performance of the scheme and its sensitivity to choices of disposable parameters is illustrated by presenting results from a series of idealized single‐column model tests. These tests demonstrate that the scheme permits establishment of a quasi‐equilibrium between large‐scale forcing and convective response. However, it is also shown that the strength of convective downdrafts is an important factor in determining the nature of the equilibrium state. Relatively strong down‐drafts give rise to an unsteady irregularly fluctuating state characterized by alternate periods of deep and shallow convection.

The effect of using the scheme for GCM climate simulations is illustrated by presenting selected results of a multi‐year simulation carried out with the Canadian Climate Centre GCM using the new parameterization (the CONV simulation). Comparison of these results with those for a climate simulation made with the standard model (the CONTROL simulation, as documented by McFarlane et al., 1992) reveals the importance of other parameterized processes in determining the ultimate effect of introducing the new convective scheme. The radiative response to changes in the cloudiness regime is particularly important in this regard.     

Non-local mixing of momentum in the convective boundary layer

Recently Frech and Mahrt proposed a closure scheme which includes alarge-scale stress term to represent the effects of non-local momentummixing in the convective boundary layer. Here large-eddy simulation (LES)datasets are used to evaluate the performance of this scheme across a rangeof stabilities between neutral and highly convective conditions, and as afunction of baroclinity. Generally the inclusion of the non-local term inthe closure model leads to results in better agreement with LES, althoughsome modifications to the model formulation are suggested.     

Sensitivity of tropical Atlantic climate to mixing in a coupled ocean–atmosphere model

The sensitivity of tropical Atlantic climate to upper ocean mixing is investigated using an ocean-only model and a coupled ocean–atmosphere model. The upper ocean thermal structure and associated atmospheric circulation prove to be strongly related to the strength of upper ocean mixing. Using the heat balance in the mixed layer it is shown that an excessively cold equatorial cold tongue can be attributed to entrainment flux at the base of the oceanic mixed layer, that is too large. Enhanced entrainment efficiency acts to deepen the mixed layer and causes strong reduction in the upper ocean divergence in the central equatorial Atlantic. As a result, the simulated sea surface temperature, thermocline structure, and upwelling velocities are close to the observed estimates. In the coupled model, the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) reduces when the entrainment efficiency in the oceanic mixed layer is enhanced. The precipitation rates decrease in the equatorial region and increase along 10°N, resulting in a more realistic Atlantic Marine ITCZ. The reduced meridional surface temperature gradient in the eastern tropical Atlantic prohibits the development of convective precipitation in the southeastern part of the tropical Atlantic. Also, the simulation of tropical Atlantic variability as expressed in the meridional gradient mode and the eastern cold tongue mode improves when the entrainment efficiency is enhanced.     

Particle dispersion and mixing induced by breaking internal gravity waves

The purpose of this paper is to analyze diapycnal mixing induced by the breaking of an internal gravity wave — the primary wave — either standing or propagating. To achieve this aim we apply two different methods. The first method consists of a direct estimate of vertical eddy diffusion from particle dispersion while the second method relies upon potential energy budgets [Winters, K.B., Lombard, P.N., Riley, J.J., D’Asaro, E.A., 1995. J. Fluid Mech. 289, 115–128; Winters, K.B., D’Asaro, E.A., 1996. J. Fluid Mech. 317, 179–193]. The primary wave we consider is of small amplitude and is statically stable, a case for which the breaking process involves two-dimensional instabilities. The dynamics of the waves have been previously analyzed by means of two-dimensional direct numerical simulations [Bouruet-Aubertot, P., Sommeria, J., Staquet, C., 1995. J. Fluid Mech. 285, 265–301; Bouruet-Aubertot, P., Sommeria, J., Staquet, C., 1996. Dyn. Atmos. Oceans 29, 41–63; Koudella, C., Staquet, C., 1998. In: Davis, P. (Ed.), Proceedings of the IMA Conference on Mixing and Dispersion on Stably-stratified Flows, Dundee, September 1996. IMA Publication]. High resolution three-dimensional calculations of the same wave are also reported here [Koudella, C., 1999].A local estimate of mixing is first inferred from the time evolution of sets of particles released in the flow during the breaking regime. We show that, after an early evolution dominated by shear effects, a diffusion law is reached and the dispersion coefficient is fairly independent of the initial seeding location of the particles in the flow.The eddy diffusion coefficient, K, is then estimated from the diapycnal diffusive flux. A good agreement with the value inferred from particle dispersion is obtained. This finding is of particular interest regarding the interpretation of in situ estimates of K inferred either from tracer dispersion or from microstructure measurements. Computation of the Cox number, equal to the ratio of eddy diffusivity to molecular diffusivity, shows that the Cox number varies within the interval [9, 262], which corresponds to the range of vertical eddy diffusivity measured in the interior of the ocean. The Cox number is found to depend on the turbulent Froude number squared.We show eventually that mixing results in a weak distortion of the initial density profile and we relate this result to observations made at small scale in the ocean.Comparisons between the analysis of the two-dimensional and high resolution (256³) three-dimensional direct numerical simulations of the primary wave were also conducted. We show that the energetics and the amount of mixing are very close when the primary wave is of small amplitude. This results from the fact that, for a statically stable wave, the dynamics of the initially two-dimensional primary wave remains mostly two-dimensional even after the onset of wavebreaking.     

面向四维变分资料同化的NSAS积云深对流参数化方案的简化及线性化研究

GRAPES全球四维变分资料同化系统需要积云深对流参数化方案的线性化与伴随方案,直接采用原始复杂参数化方案进行线性化并不可行,需要发展简化光滑方案来减缓非线性与非连续性特征。GRAPES全球模式采用NSAS积云对流参数化方案,积云深对流对环境的反馈主要通过补偿下沉来实现,研究突出补偿下沉作用,忽略降水蒸发、动量反馈等贡献,形成简化方案。采用输入温、湿度廓线加入不同幅度小扰动方法,评估参数化方案计算的温度、比湿时间倾向对输入扰动的敏感性,检验非线性与非连续特征。提出避免或减缓非连续“开关”的方法,在简化方案的基础上发展了简化光滑方案。简化光滑方案与原始积云深对流方案相比,在对流触发上一致,在对流的位温与比湿倾向、降水的时序模拟等方面相似,而在减缓非线性、避免非连续性方面显著优于原始方案。基于简化光滑方案发展的线性化方案表明,对小于2倍分析增量幅度的扰动,线性化方案可以较好地模拟非线性方案的扰动发展。发展的简化光滑方案具有合理性和实用性。      

A mechanism of deep-ocean mixing due to near-inertial waves generated by flow over bottom topography

This article describes a remarkable effect of the horizontal component of the Coriolis vector, which is traditionally neglected in geophysical fluid wave theory, for the generation of inertio-gravity waves caused by flow over topography. Earlier an initial-value approach was used to calculate the evolutions of internal waves generated by atmospheric forcing in the linear Boussinesq model as done by many investigators for the study of near-inertial waves in the ocean. In this study, however, we focused on the mechanism of generating near-inertial waves by a bottom forcing with various periods. It is shown that the non-traditional Coriolis effects can significantly enhance the generation of near-inertial waves. Moreover, the intensity of generated near-inertial waves increases as the period of bottom forcing approaches to the local inertial period, suggesting the importance of tidal flows for generating near-inertial waves in deep ocean near critical latitudes. It is inferred that such near-inertial waves may contribute to a mechanism of deep-ocean mixing.     

日间对流边界层中的非局地动量混合

日间对流边界层最显著的结构特征是在热力作用下所形成的组织化对流。与小尺度湍涡不同的是,组织化对流具有边界层尺度的垂直相干性,可实现垂直贯穿边界层的非局地物质和能量传输。本文针对对流边界层中的动量混合,探究组织化对流对动量输送的贡献。以高精度大涡模拟数据为研究资料,通过傅里叶变换、本征正交分解和经验模态分解3种滤波方法,分离组织化对流和背景湍涡,计算与两者相关的非局地和局地动量通量,发现与组织化对流相关的非局地动量通量是总通量的重要组成部分,并主导混合层中的垂直动量输送。而后,基于协谱和相位谱分析,探究组织化对流的空间结构对动量传输的影响,发现在热力主导的不稳定环境中,单体型环流结构对动量的传输效率较低。而在风切较强的近中性环境中,滚涡型组织化结构可使垂直和水平流向扰动速度的相位差减小,从而提升动量传输效率。研究结果表明,边界层方案需要包含非局地动量通量项,其参数化应考虑整体稳定度对传输效率的影响。     

A simple model for large-scale thermohaline convection

Large-scale thermohaline circulation cells in the world oceans exist due to horizontal density gradients. Owing to differential heating between equator and pole a north-south density gradient is present at the ocean surface. An additional mechanism for producing north-south density gradients is the heat and salinity transport by boundary currents in the upper parts of the world oceans. In the North Atlantic, high density sinking water is produced by a convergence of salt water from the south and cold water from the north.We have investigated large-scale thermohaline convection cells by time integrating a two-dimensional Boussinesq model. The flow is driven by an imposed density gradient at the upper boundary (mixed layer) and an externally prescribed, meridionally varying density flux in the interior of the model domain. We perform numerical simulations and through time integrations we determine equilibrium states of the model. By changing the forcing parameters slowly during the course of a time integration, we have identified regions in parameter space where a hysteretic behaviour may be found. For a given set of the forcing parameters the model has two stable equilibrium states which differ in the direction of the circulation.We have thus found that due to the nonlinear nature of the balance between advection, internal mixing and forcing more than one stable equilibrium circulation pattern can be found under a given set of external forcing parameters. This result may offer a potential explanation for the existing asymmetries between the thermohaline circulation patterns in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans as well as possible implications for the climatic state of the oceans under changing external conditions.