Particle size scales and classification of sediment types based on particle size distributions: Review and recommended procedures

This paper provides a review of different particle size scales, size class terminology and particle size distribution (‘textural’) classification schemes which are widely used in sedimentology, geomorphology, soil science, aquatic ecology and civil engineering. It is concluded that a revised system of size class nomenclature, based on the Udden (1898) and Wentworth (1922) schemes, provides the most logical and consistent framework for use with sediments and a wide range of other particulate materials. A refined scheme is proposed which has five first‐order size classes (boulder, gravel, sand, silt and clay), each of which has five second‐order subdivisions with limits defined at one phi intervals. The scheme is simple and intuitively easy to understand. The paper also provides a review of previous schemes that have been proposed to describe and classify sediments on the basis of the proportions of gravel, sand and mud, or sand, silt and clay using trigons (also termed ternary diagrams). Many of these schemes do not have a logical basis and provide limited or uneven resolution. New gravel, sand and mud and sand, silt and clay classification systems are proposed that are both more logical and provide greater discriminatory power than previous schemes; they are therefore more suitable for use in environmental and forensic investigations. A new Microsoft Excel^® program, freely available to download from http://www.kpal.co.uk , allows rapid classification of sediments based on the proportions of gravel, sand and mud and sand, silt and clay proportions and graphical comparison of the data for different sample groups.     

金和铜矿床分类研究的过去、现状和未来

<正>1问题提出在自然科学研究中,为了阐明无数单独个体的共性和个性,对其开展分类研究极为重要,它可以使十分复杂的结构得以简化进而获取有规律性的结果.有鉴于此,与其他自然科学的分类研究一样,金和铜矿床类型的划分不仅是成矿理论研究的永恒主题之一,     

软岩巷道可缓冲渐变式双强壳体支护原理及实践

深部软岩巷道承受高地应力作用,导致围岩产生流变大变形是影响其安全稳定的重要因素。以阳煤一矿西大巷工程为例,分析软弱围岩变形破坏机制;建立能够反映工程地质状况及初始设计方案的有限元模型,以现场监测变形数据和钻孔窥视围岩变形破坏深度为基础,反演获取围岩力学参数和蠕变参数。提出适合软弱流变岩体的可缓冲渐变式双强壳体支护方法,即根据围岩破坏情况进行分层注浆加固,并在最外部架设可缩性U型钢支架,形成可变形缓冲层。建立新型支护方案的有限元模型,利用围岩反演参数预测围岩变形情况,并通过与现场监测数据对比分析,验证了所提支护方案的有效性。     

智能岩石力学及其内容

本文针对岩石力学研究中目前存在的问题和信息时代的要求, 提出了21世纪的智能岩石力学的新思想和研究内容。它是综合现有各种行之有效的方法, 系统研究岩石工程问题, 提高岩石力学解决复杂问题的准确性。     

三维网络结构岩体力学架构与展望

三维网络结构岩体力学是岩体力学的一个分支。根据笔者20余年对裂隙岩体研究的心得,阐述了三维网络结构岩体力学的主要特点、研究对象,基本架构、主要研究内容与未来的展望。将岩体结构控制论归结为材料强度控制、结构类型控制、渗流通道控制和几何边界控制4个方面。技术层面的主要内容包括三维RQD估算、岩体表征单元估算技术、结构块体搜索技术、定向投影岩体结构面三维连通率估算技术以及岩体三维渗径搜索技术等。理论层面主要由球面投影理论、概率统计理论、随机动力学、几何拓扑理论、块体理论、非线性系统理论和裂隙岩体多尺度等效结构模型等构成。强调足量的随机不连续面地质信息的原位统计取样是三维网络结构岩体力学的基础,岩体随机不连续面三维网络数值模拟技术是三维网络结构岩体力学的核心技术。     

TERMINOLOGY FOR GEOLOGICAL REFERENCE MATERIAL VALUES: A PROPOSAL TO THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION (ISO), PRODUCERS AND USERS

A new terminology is proposed for categorising values in geological reference materials based on the confidence that may be placed in an individual datum. This classification scheme is designed to be applicable to data derived from both cooperative analysis programmes and compilations of data published in the literature. Use of the following terminology is proposed: "certified value equivalent", "recommended value" and "provisional value", depending on the associated one sigma confidence limits and other analytical criteria listed in Table 1. To demonstrate the application to data that was originally assessed using different criteria and terminology, the proposed scheme has been used to reclassify data derived from the cooperative analysis program for USGS SDO-1 (Devonian Shale) and a compilation of published data for USGS G-1 (granite).     

Assessment of geomechanical characterization of a rock mass using a seismic geophysical technique

Summary In this article the use of the seismic properties of a rock mass to assess the geomechanical behaviour of the rock mass is examined and illustrated. The correlation between the values of seismic velocity and some basic parameters of rock mechanics, such as RQD and fracture frequency, have been established. Moreover, the relationships between the engineering rock-mass classification systems and seismic quality index (QI) have also been derived. The relationships have been derived from an investigation for a proposed dam in Wadi Mujib, Jordan. The ground conditions comprise colluvial and fluvial superficial deposits overlying limestones, mudstones, marls and shales. It is suggested that the relationships obtained in this study could be applied in areas that have similar lithological and structural characteristics.     

Deformation and fracturing behaviour of discontinuous rock mass and damage mechanics theory

The mechanical behaviour of a rock mass is strongly affected by discontinuities such as faults and joints. In this paper, a damage mechanics theory is proposed which deals with some sets of discontinuities distributed in a rock mass, for example, joint systems. In this theory, the distributed discontinuities are characterized by a second-order symmetric tensor, called the damage tensor. By introducing the damage concept, the deformation and fracturing behaviour of the rock mass can be reated in a framework of continuum mechanics. A numerical procedure is developed in order to implement the damage mechanics model by using the finite element method. The theory and numerical analysis are applied to several laboratory tests and a practical underground opening problem. Numerical results are compared with measured data.     

横向锚固大试块岩体单轴压缩力学特性数值试验研究

锚固技术是岩土工程中的一个主要支护手段之一,如何揭示锚索（杆）与岩石的复合作用机制锚固和失效形态,越来越成为关注的焦点。采用FLAC数值方法,对大试块横向含锚岩体的单轴压缩条件下力学性态进行了试验研究,结果表明：锚索（杆）与围岩的复合增强机制不仅与外载的大小有关,而且与锚固界面的力学性质有很大关系。随着锚固界面凝聚力的减小,锚固界面和锚索轴向的应力值都将减少,即锚索（杆）增强承载能力下降。当凝聚力减小到一定数值时,锚索（杆）将脱黏而产生滑动,导致锚固失效,因此,提高锚固界面的黏结力是保证锚固效果的关键之一。大试块锚固体的实验室岩石力学试验无论是试块加工还是试验过程,将十分困难和繁琐。采用数值模拟方法代替实验室试验,具有省时、经济、可视性强等优点,是今后研究锚固体力学性态的重要途径,具有推广应用价值。     

Visualization of rock mass classification systems

A rock mass classification system is intended to classify and characterize the rock masses, provide a basis for estimating deformation and strength properties, supply quantitative data for mine support estimation, and present a platform for communication between exploration, design and construction groups. In most widely used rock mass classification systems, such as RMR and Q systems, up to six parameters are employed to classify the rock mass. Visualization of rock mass classification systems in multi-dimensional spaces is explored to assist engineers in identifying major controlling parameters in these rock mass classification systems. Different visualization methods are used to visualize the most widely used rock mass classification systems. The study reveals that all major rock mass classification systems tackle essentially two dominant factors in their scheme, i.e., block size and joint surface condition. Other sub-parameters, such as joint set number, joint space, joint surface roughness, alteration, etc., control these two dominant factors. A series two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and multi-dimensional visualizations are created for RMR, Q, Rock Mass index RMi and Geological Strength Index (GSI) systems using different techniques. In this manner, valuable insight into these rock mass classification systems is gained.     

APPLICATION OF FUZZY MATHEMATICS IN COMPREHANICS EVALUATION AND ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK MASSES

The engineering classification of rock masses is one of the basic problems in rock mechanics .The main purpose of engineering classification of rock masses is comprehensively to evaluate rock masses ,to divide the rock masses into several proper classes and to offer guantitative data for engineering design .therefore engineering classification of rock masses is very important for engineering practice and aroused a great interest to the investigators of rock mechanics .On the basis of Bieniawski’s geomechanics classification of rock masses , a new method of engineering classification of rock masses has been proposed by means of the theory of modern fuzzy mathematics .In this classification the rock masses are evaluated on the basis of six parameters :the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock material drill core quality RQD, spacing ,orientation and condition of joints ,and ground water inflow. The rating for each parameter is determined and total rating for rock mass is specified by the method of weighted average .The rating and the weight for each parameter were considered as fuzzy variables . Therefore not only the total rating but also varying Range of total rating(or pthe membership of total rating ) are given .The randomly varying state of in situ rock masses can be described by this method of classification so that the result of comprehensively evaluating is more accurate than others . In additional, an accurate and simple evaluating method that is suitable for the engineers has been given .     

深部厚顶煤巷道让压型锚索箱梁支护系统布置方式对比研究

针对深部厚顶煤巷道围岩变形特点,以“先控后让再抗”为支护理念,设计了让压型锚索箱梁支护系统横梁、纵向单梁、纵向双梁及纵横组合4种不同布置方式的支护方案。数值试验结果表明,纵横组合方案具有最好的围岩控制效果,横梁方案支护效果相对较差。对让压型锚索箱梁支护系统的4种方案进行了现场试验,监测结果显示,纵横组合方案作用下的围岩变形量最小,其两帮移近量和顶板沉降量仅为120 mm和90 mm,同时该方案支护反力最大;锚杆、锚索受力与巷道围岩控制效果相对应,且锚索让压环作用明显;设计制作的测力箱梁监测表明,箱型支护梁受力合理协调,材料性能发挥充分。对让压型锚索箱梁支护系统及其不同布置方案的作用机制进行了探讨。综合分析表明,深部厚顶煤巷道中,优先选用让压型锚索箱梁支护系统中的纵横组合与纵向单梁方案,可有效地控制巷道围岩变形,满足支护要求。     

模糊集合论在岩体的综合评价和工程分类上的应用

岩体的工程分类是岩体力学的基本问题之一.岩体工程分类的主要目的是,针对不同的工程对象,对岩体进行综合评价,划分等级,区分成性质相近的类别,为工程的选点,设计提供定量的资料.同时,岩体的工程分类也是我们按不同的类型深入研究岩体的力学性质,建立相应的数学模型的基础.因此岩体的工程分类具有重要的实际意义,对它的研究日益广泛地引起了人们重视.到目前为止,已提出了不少岩体的分类法.从不同的出发点大体分为两类,(1)从岩体力学出发对岩体特性的一般性分类,例如Muller的分类等.(2)为特定的工程目的分类,例如为岩石边坡的Goodman分类法等.为隧道工程而提出的岩体分类最早是Terzaghi(1946年)的分类法.后来还有Lauffer(1958年)等人提出的分类法.     

基于大变形分析的三峡库区某滑坡防治设计研究

三峡库区某岩质滑坡的变形失稳涉及到地质、环境、人类工程活动等多种因素。针对该滑坡的变形破坏规律和诱发机制,拟采用削坡、抗滑桩、排水系统等加固措施,以确保滑坡整体和局部稳定,其中加固方案的长期有效性将是整个治理工程的关键。通过对大变形数值方法以及滑坡治理工程措施特点的分析,认为在研究滑坡治理工程大变形问题时采用非线性大变形数值方法更加合理,加固方案的优化设计采用了三维快速拉格朗日分析（FLAC3D）法,通过对滑坡区位移场以及破坏区的变化规律进行分析,将各项加固措施及其组合工况的治理效果进行对比优选,最后确定出以抗滑桩和削坡为主、排水为辅的最优加固方案。该方案的治理效果已被实践资料所证实,其中的部分方法和结论对三峡库区滑坡地质灾害的防治具有指导意义。     

深部软岩巷道喷射钢纤维混凝土支护技术

针对深部软岩的基本特征, 提出了深部软岩巷道支护的新思路, 即改变现有的锚喷作业顺序, 并通过在素喷混凝土中掺入适量钢纤维的方法来改善混凝土的整体力学性能, 使之更好地适应软岩巷道大变形的需要。借助数值模拟, 进行了支护方案的对比分析, 并提出了合理的支护方案。     

Sequential implicit vertex approximate gradient discretization of incompressible two-phase Darcy flows with discontinuous capillary pressure

This work deals with sequential implicit schemes for incompressible and immiscible two-phase Darcy flows which are commonly used and well understood in the case of spatially homogeneous capillary pressure functions. To our knowledge, the stability of this type of splitting schemes solving sequentially a pressure equation followed by the saturation equation has not been investigated so far in the case of discontinuous capillary pressure curves at different rock type interfaces. It will be shown here to raise severe stability issues for which stabilization strategies are investigated in this work. To fix ideas, the spatial discretization is based on the Vertex Approximate Gradient (VAG) scheme accounting for unstructured polyhedral meshes combined with an Hybrid Upwinding (HU) of the transport term and an upwind positive approximation of the capillary and gravity fluxes. The sequential implicit schemes are built from the total velocity formulation of the two-phase flow model and only differ in the way the conservative VAG total velocity fluxes are approximated. The stability, accuracy and computational cost of the sequential implicit schemes studied in this work are tested on oil migration test cases in 1D, 2D and 3D basins with a large range of capillary pressure parameters for the drain and barrier rock types. It will be shown that usual splitting strategies fail to capture the right solutions for highly contrasted rock types and that it can be fixed by maintaining locally the pressure saturation coupling at different rock type interfaces in the definition of the conservative total velocity fluxes. The numerical investigation of the sequential schemes is also extended to the widely used finite volume Two-Point Flux Approximation spatial discretization.

     

深部开采圆形巷道围岩破损区与支护压力的确定

应用经典塑性力学理论确定的圆形巷道围岩弹塑性应力场存在一些问题,这影响深部圆形巷道的稳定性评价及支护设计的合理性。应用塑性力学求解新体系确定的圆形巷道围岩弹塑性应力场准确解,进行了各向同性均质地层中圆形巷道破损区、地层残余强度与支护压力关系方面的研究,取得了如下成果:(1)破损区随开采深度的增加而增大,它们基本呈线性关系。(2)建立了支护压力与巷道埋深、围岩强度、围岩破坏后残余强度、围岩泊松比和重度之间的关系。研究成果可为支护设计提供重要参考。     

天津滨海新区浅层超软土加固技术现场对比试验

分析天津滨海新区浅层超软土加固处理存在的问题,提出常规方案、单排单管方案和单排单管加密方案。依托天津滨海新区某工程,开展现场对比试验。结合各种监测检测成果,对比分析3种方案加固效果,并提出进一步优化改进建议。工程实践表明,经过3种方案加固处理,吹填淤泥表层会形成具有一定强度和厚度的硬壳层,土体物理力学性质明显改善,均能满足后续吹填砂垫层和机械插板的施工要求。另外,单排单管方案和加密方案加固效果明显优于常规方案,尤其有利于硬壳层厚度的形成。从长远加固效果角度出发,单排单管方案及加密方案更可取。