The tectonic regime in Italy inferred from borehole breakout data

In Italy, the horizontal stress directions are well constrained in many regions, but the tectonic regime is not well known because the stress magnitudes are unknown. Our intention is to improve the knowledge of crustal stress in Italy, both at shallow depth and in low seismicity areas. Therefore, we inferred the tectonic regime from the comparison between the depth of breakout occurrence and the physical properties of the rocks in 20 boreholes. The critical value of the maximum horizontal stress, for which the effective tangential stress at the borehole wall overcomes the rock strength to form breakouts, could be computed from rock strength and density. Comparing the theoretical stress distributions for different tectonic regimes with the depth distribution of breakout occurrence, it is possible to infer the tectonic regime that fits best to the breakout depth distribution. We investigated boreholes up to 6 km deep located in different tectonic environments over the Italian peninsula: the Po Plain, the Apenninic chain, the Adriatic foredeep and the Tyrrhenian Quaternary volcanic region. These wells are characterised by breakout data of good quality (A, B and C, according to World Stress Map quality ranking system). The results are in general agreement with the style of faulting derived from earthquake focal mechanisms and other stress indicators. Our results show a predominance of a normal faulting (NF) regime in the inner Apennines and both normal faulting and strike–slip faulting (SS) style in the surrounding regions, possibly also associated with changes in the tectonic regime with depth.     

葛洲坝二江基坑围岩岩组分析

葛洲坝二江基坑在开挖期间发现围岩移动,为了研究其原因,本文采用了岩组分析的方法.该法能精确地测量各组构要素的产状和利用数理统计来计算,从而分析岩石的形成条件和各种构造运动的成因与发展.通过岩组分析研究岩体内部产生差异运动引起造岩矿物的品格变化而形成的应力方位及其强弱。为此在二江基坑围岩沿一剖面取样12片,分别进行了 X 射线岩组和显微镜-费氏台岩组分析,将其结果进行对比,得出地质构造应力方位及其强弱.实践证明岩组分析得出的地应力方位及强弱与工程地质、地应力测量等方法所得的结果是一致的.通过这次试验研究证明利用岩组分析所得的地应力方位及其强弱对岩体工程稳定性评价是有意义的.     

Fabric Analysis of Surrounding Rock of Erjiang River Foundation Pit at Gezhouba Dam

The foundation pit of Gezhouba Dam at the part of Erjiang River was discovered to remove in surrounding rock during excavation. For the purpose of ingestigation of its causes, a fabric analysis method is adopted in this paper. The occurrence of each fabric factor can be accurately measured and calculated by the mathematical statistics, so as to analyse the formation conditions of rock and the genesis and development of various tectonic movements. The orientation and magnitude of rock stresses are studied due to changes of crystal lattice of rock-forming minerals caused by differential movements inside the rock. Twelve pieces of sample which were cut off from the original rock as the Dam site were fabrically analysed respectively by X-ray method and microscope (F fabric) method. By comparing with each other, the orientation and magnitude of the tectonic stresses were obtained. It is shown that the orientation and magnitudes of in-situ geo-stress as determined from the fabric analysis are in accord with the results obtained from engineering geology or in-situ stress measurement. From this research, the orientations and magnitudes of geo-stress determined by the fabric analysis are found to be ;suitable for evaluating stability in rock engineering.     

桃子垭深埋特长隧道地应力预测及复核

深埋特长隧道工程的高地应力问题越来越受到重视,如何准确高效地确定工程区地应力状态,是目前关注的重点和难点。针对深埋特长隧道地应力状态的确定问题,我们提出了基于多源数据的初始原地应力方向综合确定和应力量值预测及复核的综合解决方案。通过勘察阶段有限钻孔的地应力测试,并结合区域多源地应力资料,可以综合确定地应力方向并利用修正的Sheorey模型预测隧道轴线地应力;针对预测结果,在隧道开挖施工过程中,进一步利用有限钻孔的水压致裂地应力测试检验预测结果并复核隧道应力状况。结果表明,桃子垭隧道水平最大主应力方向为N15°W～N40°W,实测三向应力关系为S_H≥S_v>S_h;钻孔附近的应力预测值在区域实测应力量值变化范围内,隧道埋深最大处的水平最大、最小应力值分别达24 MPa和16 MPa;隧道施工过程中的4个钻孔应力量值复核结果显示,除了局部受到岩性变化、断裂破碎带等影响出现偏差,本文预测结果与实测应力量值基本一致。笔者发展的原地应力综合预测及复核方法,一方面可以快速有效地预测深埋特长隧道等线状工程的原地应力状态,有效降低初始...     

Geo-stress Characteristics of Schist of Erdaoya Tunnel and Physical Properties of Rock Masses

Erdaoya tunnel in the highway connecting Shiyan (Hubei province) and Manchuan, (Shanxi province) was studied in the study. Various problems occurred in the construction of the tunnel, including large deformation of surrounding rocks, cracks of preliminary supports and secondary linings as well as creeping down and collapse of surrounding rock masses along schistosity planes. In which, the most serious problem was large deformation of surrounding rocks, which not only dramatically delayed the normal construction progress of the tunnel, but also brought a huge challenge for the safety of builders. In order to solve this problem, detailed investigations were made on site in the study to reveal the regional geological, engineering geological and hydrogeological conditions of the tunnel. By conducting geo-stress measurement on site, the characteristics of geo-stress field of Erdaoya tunnel were analyzed from four aspects, including magnitudes of stress, coefficient of lateral pressure, orientation of stress and the relationship between magnitudes of geo-stresses and depths. By applying the DIPS software for interactively analyzing geological locator data, structure characteristics of rock masses were analyzed for preferred structural planes and schistosity planes in the tunnel site. Furthermore, the authors tested the physical and hydrological properties of the rock specimens collected on-site. So various physical properties (density, void fraction, and wave velocity) and water absorption hydrological property of schist were obtained, which provide underlying parameters support for the deformation and support of surrounding rocks of the tunnel.     

高地应力硬脆性围岩破坏影响因素分析

地应力对硬脆性岩体稳定性具有极为重要作用,已有研究主要集中于脆性破坏方式及其是否发生的预测上,而对地应力、洞形等因素与脆性破坏深度间关系的研究较为少见。基于硬脆性岩体脆性破坏准则,利用Examine2D软件,分析不同地应力环境及洞形时围岩脆性破坏深度d_f变化情况。结果表明:最小主应力量值较低时,破坏深度d_f与主应力比k近似为直线关系,较高时则为非线性增长;随着k值增加,屈服范围逐渐偏离最小主应力方向45°夹角发展;洞室断面长宽相近时,主应力方向较主应力量值对d_f的影响小,相同应力量值不同主应力方向,破坏位置不同,深度变化较小。洞形不同应力集中系数不同,选择长短轴长度之比与应力比k相接近的椭圆形谐洞,可有效降低破坏深度。     

滇东北深埋特长公路隧道工程区地应力场研究

深埋特长隧道工程区地应力场的预测一直是工程技术人员面临的难题,而工程地质综合分析法则可为工程区地应力场的分析提供较为全面准确的结论。因此,本文以滇东北典型深埋特长隧道——乐红隧道为例,采用综合分析法来研究工程区的地应力场特征。首先基于中国大陆应力分区,利用Anderson断层力学理论、震源机制解及实测地应力统计数据来获取研究区主应力方向。其次,基于工程地质勘察成果,利用Hoek-Brown强度准则对工程区的岩体强度进行了初步估算。在此基础上,利用修正Sheorey模型对工程区地应力量值水平进行了预测。分析结果表明,工程区以先进构造应力为主导。其中:水平最大主应力优势方位为N20°~60°W,应力场方向较为稳定。地应力量值水平预测结果表明,工程区在埋深500 m左右时,最大、最小水平主应力量值范围分别为11.2~20.5 MPa、6.6~12.2 MPa;埋深在1000 m左右时的最大、最小水平主应力量值范围分别为25.9~28.2 MPa、15.4~17.1 MPa。工程区在埋深超过500 m时的高地应力情况下,可能存在岩爆风险,而围岩大变形的问题几乎不存在。综合分析法的预测结果与现场实测数据较为吻合,表明该方法在线状公路隧道地应力状态的预测分析中,具有良好的应用效果。     

中国大陆科学钻主孔现今地应力状态

用钻孔崩落法确定了中国大陆科学钻探主钻孔5 047 m深度以上的现今地应力状态.由钻孔声波成像测井资料发现, 科学钻主钻孔在1 200 m深度以下出现了钻孔崩落现象.我们从1 216~5 047 m的深度范围内采集了143个钻孔成像测井图象资料, 对钻孔崩落椭圆长轴方位进行了统计, 结果表明崩落椭圆长轴平均方位为319.5°±3.5°, 最大水平主应力方位平均为49.5°±3.5°.利用崩落形状要素(崩落深度和崩落宽度) 以及岩石的内聚力和内摩擦角, 估算了1 269 m至5 047 m范围内52个深度上的最大和最小水平主应力的大小.结果表明, 在浅处1 216 m深度, 最大水平主应力为42 MPa, 最小水平主应力为30.3 MPa; 在深处5 000 mm深度, 最大水平主应力为160.5 MPa, 最小水平主应力为120 MPa; 地应力随深度近于线性增加.据岩石密度测井资料计算了各个深度上静负载应力.3个主应力的大小和方向反映出科学钻主孔位置的应力场处于走滑应力状态, 与临近地区地震震源机制解和其他方法得到的应力场一致.利用声发射法对岩心试件进行了声发射测量, 得到了最大水平主应力幅值, 并与崩落法测量结果进行了对比, 两者十分一致.      

Palynofacies,Organic Thermal Maturation and Source Rock Evaluation of Nanka and Ogwashi Formations in Updip Niger Delta Basin,Southeastern Nigeria

For the deep underground pump house complex engineering geological and geotechnical investigations were carried out. The area was investigated through detailed engineering geological mapping, exploratory drilling, in-situ stress measurements and laboratory testing. Surface mapping was done on 1:500 scales with 0.5 m contour interval and drill holes logging was done on 1:100 scale. The rock mass properties, i.e. joint sets, weathering grade, RQD etc. of the rock masses to be encountered during the excavation of cavities have been analyzed in detail. Core samples from the exploratory drill holes drilled at the surge pool and pump house area were tested for physico-mechanical properties of rocks in the laboratory. To evaluate the stress regime at the proposed underground pump house complex area, stress measurements were carried out by hydrofracturing method inside the borehole. The mapping details indicated that cavities will be excavated through fresh, coarse to very coarse grained, hard and jointed granites. The average depth recorded of fresh rock from the surface was 15.7 m. The uniaxial compressive strength of the rock mass range from 221 to 246 MPa. The orientation of the long axis of the cavities recommended is N150°. Classification of rock mass using Tunnelling Quality Index Q is attempted and the values are range from 3.58 to 16.40.     

The present-day stress field of New South Wales,Australia

The Australian continent displays the most complex pattern of present-day tectonic stress observed in any major continental area. Although plate boundary forces provide a well-established control on the large-scale (>500 km) orientation of maximum horizontal stress (S_Hmax), smaller-scale variations, caused by local forces, are poorly understood in Australia. Prior to this study, the World Stress Map database contained 101 S_Hmax orientation measurements for New South Wales (NSW), Australia, with the bulk of the data coming from shallow engineering tests in the Sydney Basin. In this study we interpret present-day stress indicators analysed from 58.6 km of borehole image logs in 135 coal-seam gas and petroleum wells in different sedimentary basins of NSW, including the Gunnedah, Clarence-Moreton, Sydney, Gloucester, Darling and Bowen–Surat basins. This study provides a refined stress map of NSW, with a total of 340 (A–E quality) S_Hmax orientations consisting of 186 stress indicators from borehole breakouts, 69 stress measurements from shallow engineering methods, 48 stress indicators from drilling-induced fractures, and 37 stress indicators from earthquake focal mechanism solutions. We define seven stress provinces throughout NSW and determine the mean orientation of the S_Hmax for each stress province. The results show that the S_Hmax is variable across the state, but broadly ranges from NE–SW to ESE–WNW. The S_Hmax is approximately E–W to ESE–WNW in the Darling Basin and Southeastern Seismogenic Zone that covers the west and south of NSW, respectively. However, the present-day S_Hmax rotates across the northeastern part of NSW, from approximately NE–SW in the South Sydney and Gloucester basins to ENE–WSW in the North Sydney, Clarence-Moreton and Gunnedah basins. Comparisons between the observed S_Hmax orientations and Australian stress models in the available literature reveal that previous numerical models were unable to satisfactorily predict the state of stress in NSW. Although clear regional present-day stress trends exist in NSW, there are also large perturbations observed locally within most stress provinces that demonstrate the significant control on local intraplate sources of stress. Local S_Hmax perturbations are interpreted to be due to basement topography, basin geometry, lithological contrasts, igneous intrusions, faults and fractures. Understanding and predicting local stress perturbations has major implications for determining the most productive fractures in petroleum systems, and for modelling the propagation direction and vertical height growth of induced hydraulic fractures in simulation of unconventional reservoirs.     

Effects of Rock Bolting on Stress Distribution around Tunnel Using the Elastoplastic Model

INTRODUCTIONThe stability of underground structures duringand after excavation is the most i mportant factor fordesigners because any kind of collapse may destroylarge parts of a finished tunnel,thereby causing ma-jor repairs and ti me loss.To avoid this problem,rock bolts are widely used as ani mportant support el-ement.These are economical,have a short installa-tion ti me,and provide reinforcement to maintain theintegrity of the stressed rock.The effect of the bearing capacity of rock b…     

三向应力状态下单结构面岩石试样破坏机制与真三轴试验研究

针对含结构面岩石的脆性破坏现象,探讨了三向应力条件下岩体破坏的单结构面控制效应。利用真三轴试验进行验证,系统研究了单结构面岩石试样在模拟工程岩体开挖卸荷与支护应力路径下的力学行为、结构控制规律及声发射（AE）特征等。研究表明,(1) 三向应力下单结构面控制效应能够较好地描述工程岩体的结构控制规律和卸荷、支护作用,真三轴试验结果与理论分析较为吻合;(2) 开挖卸荷与支护应力路径下,含结构面岩体的破坏模式、卸荷的影响和支护效果等均与应力状态、支护强度及结构面参数有关,可依据结构控制规律,从工程方位布置、提供合理支护等方面采取措施避免岩体发生结构控制破坏;(3) 试样的AE活动和能量释放规律与完整试样相似,但结构面的存在降低了试样储能能力,且95 %以上的应变能在破坏阶段突然释放。试验研究和结构面控制效应的探讨对地下工程岩体开挖支护有一定的指导意义。     

On the strength of transversely isotropic rocks

Accurate prediction of strength in rocks with distinct bedding planes requires knowledge of the bedding plane orientation relative to the load direction. Thermal softening adds complexity to the problem since it is known to have significant influence on the strength and strain localization properties of rocks. In this paper, we use a recently proposed thermoplastic constitutive model appropriate for rocks exhibiting transverse isotropy in both the elastic and plastic responses to predict their strength and strain localization properties. Recognizing that laboratory‐derived strengths can be influenced by material and geometric inhomogeneities of the rock samples, we consider both stress‐point and boundary‐value problem simulations of rock strength behavior. Both plane strain and 3D loading conditions are considered. Results of the simulations of the strength of a natural Tournemire shale and a synthetic transversely isotropic rock suggest that the mechanical model can reproduce the general U‐shaped variation of rock strength with bedding plane orientation quite well. We show that this variation could depend on many factors, including the stress loading condition (plane strain versus 3D), degree of anisotropy, temperature, shear‐induced dilation versus shear‐induced compaction, specimen imperfections, and boundary restraints.     

Micromechanical Modelling of Stress Waves in Rock and Rock Fractures

The goal of this paper is to simulate the interaction of stress waves and rock fractures in a particle micromechanical model. Stress waves travelling in fractured rock masses are slowed down and attenuated by natural heterogeneities, voids, microcracks and, above all, by faults and fractures. Considerable laboratory and theoretical investigation have uncovered the major aspects of this phenomenon, but models that cover the core mechanisms of the wave propagation in rock masses are necessary to investigate aspects of wave–fracture interaction, which are not completely clear, and in the future simulate full-scale real problems. The micromechanical model is based on the particle discrete element model that reproduces rock through a densely packed non-structured assembly of 2D disks with point contacts. The model of a hard rock core is developed and an irregular rock joint is generated at mid-height. A new contact constitutive model is applied to the particles in the joint walls. Numerical static joint compression tests are performed and a typical hyperbolic stress–displacement curve is obtained. Conditions for good quality wave transmission through non-jointed unorganized particulate media are determined, hybrid static–dynamic boundary conditions are established and plane waves are emitted into the compressed joint. The transmitted and reflected waves are extracted and analysed. Joint dynamic stiffness calculated according to the hypotheses of the Displacement Discontinuity Theory shows to increase with the static joint compression until the joint is completely closed. Still in its early stages of application, this rock micromechanical model enables the joint behaviour under static and dynamic loading to be analysed in detail. Its advantages are the reproduction of the real mechanics of contact creation, evolution and destruction and the possibility of visualizing in detail the joint geometry changes, which is hard to accomplish in the laboratory.     

松动岩体工程特性研究——以雅砻江楞古水电站松动岩体为例

为了对松动岩体的工程特性进行系统研究,以楞古水电站厂址区边坡为例,对该边坡岩体进行了详细的地质编录和物理勘探试验,重点对节理裂隙的空间发育规律、镶嵌结构和碎裂结构岩体的发育深度及空间分布、软弱结构面发育分布规律以及边坡已有变形破坏特征这四个方面进行了系统的统计和分析,认为松动岩体是区域断裂活动和浅表生改造的结果,岩体工程效应差、变形模量低;同时结合应力测试、声波测速、高密度电磁勘探等试验成果进行分析,结果显示松动岩体具低波速（波速大部分小于3 000 m/s）、低应力（最大主应力不超过20 MPa）、强透水性（透水性系数大于10 L/（min·m·m））。认为岩体破碎主要受断层及节理裂隙影响,分析了岩体破裂松动的演化过程及特征。     

清江水布垭工程坝址岩体稳定性三维数值模拟研究

清江干流水布垭水电枢纽是与隔河岩、高坝洲水电枢纽并重的国家级大型水电工程 ,坝址区高边坡稳定性问题是水布垭坝址主要的工程地质问题之一。采用三维有限元数值模拟方法 ,对坝址区岩体应力场和位移进行了研究 ;探讨了岩体三维应力、应变分布与岩体变形破坏的关系 ,评价了岩体的稳定性     

Three-Dimensional In Situ Stress-Field Simulations of Shale Gas Formations: A Case Study of the 5th Member of the Xujiahe Formation in the Xinchang Gas Field, West Sichuan Depression

This work established a geological model for the 5th member of the Xujiahe Formation (X5 member) in the Xinchang gas field of the West Sichuan Depression based on the lithological, structural and depositional properties, as well as logging and well completion data and drill-core observations. Rock mechanical parameters were calculated according to rock mechanic experiments and rock mechanic interpretations from logging data. We also calculated the magnitudes and orientations of the in situ stresses based on acoustic emission tests, differential strain tests, fracturing behaviour and logging interpretations as well as anisotropy logging tests, borehole-breakout measurements and well-log data. Additionally, the present stress field of the X5 member was simulated using finite element numerical (FEM) simulation methods. The numerical simulation results indicate that the distributions of lithology and fractures are key factors that influence the present stress field. The stress field in the study area is discontinuous as a result of fractures and faults in the central and eastern areas. Stress is concentrated at the end sections and bends of faults, but dissipates with distance away from both sides of the faults. A longitudinal profile clearly demonstrates the zonality and continuity of the stress field and an increase with depth. The differential stress distribution is relatively uniform; however, large deviations occur in fracture zones.     

Lithospheric buoyancy forces in Africa from a thin sheet approach

Many features in rift zones and passive margins have been successfully explained by lithospheric stretching models driven solely by tectonic forces. However, the origin of these forces and whether they are sufficient for amagmatic rifting of an initially thick lithosphere remain open questions. We use a thin sheet approach and the CRUST 2.0 model to compute vertically averaged deviatoric stresses arising from horizontal gradients of gravitational potential energy. Computed deviatoric stress directions agree well with earthquake focal mechanisms and stress indicators from the World Stress Map project. We compare the resulting force per unit length with the integrated strength of the lithosphere in the East African Rift and show that buoyancy forces may account for a significant part of the force budget causing continental rifting but are likely insufficient to rupture an initially thick and cold continental lithosphere. This suggests other processes contribute at a significant level to the force balance driving continental rifting in East Africa.     

Stress Concentration at the Bottom of a Borehole and its Effect on Borehole Breakout Formation

Summary Stress concentration at the bottom of a borehole due to the corners with small radius of curvature in an axial section and its effect on the azimuth of breakout was studied. To this end, a 3-D finite element analysis was conducted and the stress around the borehole was examined for boreholes arbitrarily oriented to three principal axes of remote stress. Results show that, in the case of high strength rock, compressive failure resulting in spalling of a borehole may occur only at the bottom of the borehole. The spalling can occur continuously with drilling, and results in continuous spalling with depth, i.e., a breakout. This type of breakout tends to form on one side of the borehole and its orientation is approximately perpendicular to the orientation of standard breakouts, inferred from the stress concentration due to the cylindrical shape of the borehole.     

Estimation of the Rock Deformation Modulus and RMR Based on Data Mining Techniques

In this work Data Mining tools are used to develop new and innovative models for the estimation of the rock deformation modulus and the Rock Mass Rating (RMR). A database published by Chun et al. (Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 46:649–658, 2008) was used to develop these models. The parameters of the database were the depth, the weightings of the RMR system related to the uniaxial compressive strength, the rock quality designation, the joint spacing, the joint condition, the groundwater condition and the discontinuity orientation adjustment, the RMR and the deformation modulus. As a modelling tool the R program environment was used to apply these advanced techniques. Several algorithms were tested and analysed using different sets of input parameters. It was possible to develop new models to predict the rock deformation modulus and the RMR with improved accuracy and, additionally, allowed to have an insight of the importance of the different input parameters.