长波区间太阳辐射对气候模拟的影响

长波区间的太阳辐射在气候模式中往往被忽略。利用国家气候中心BCC_AGCM2.0.1大气环流模式,采用矩阵算子辐射传输算法,研究了长波区间太阳辐射对气候模式辐射通量和温度模拟结果的影响。结果表明,以ISCCP和CERES辐射资料为标准,考虑长波区间太阳辐射后,长波区间晴空大气地表向下辐射通量平均误差减小2.05 W/m2,均方根误差减少1.29 W/m2;长波区间晴空大气模式顶向上辐射通量平均误差减小0.70 W/m2,均方根误差减小0.21 W/m2;长波区间有云大气地表向下辐射通量平均误差减小1.38 W/m2,均方根误差减小1.03 W/m2;长波区间有云大气模式顶向上辐射通量平均误差减小0.99 W/m2,均方根误差减小0.30 W/m2。以ECMWF再分析资料为标准,考虑长波区间太阳辐射后,赤道地区上对流层—下平流层区域温度的冷偏差得到改善,对流层顶温度平均误差减小0.27 K,均方根误差减小0.25 K。     

Parameterisation of incoming longwave radiation over glacier surfaces in the semiarid Andes of Chile

A good understanding of radiation fluxes is important for calculating energy, and hence, mass exchange at glacier surfaces. This study evaluates incoming longwave radiation measured at two nearby glacier stations in the high Andes of the Norte Chico region of Chile. These data are the first published records of atmospheric longwave radiation measurements in this region. Nine previously published optimised parameterisations for clear sky emissivity all produced results with a root mean square error (RMSE) ~20 W?m^?2 and bias within ±5 W m^?2, which is inline with findings from other regions. Six optimised parameterisations for incoming longwave in all sky conditions were trialled for application to this site, five of which performed comparably well with RMSE on daytime data <18 W?m^?2 and bias within ±6 W?m^?2 when applied to the optimisation site and RMSE <20 W?m^?2 and bias within ±10 W m^?2 when applied to the validation site. The parameterisation proposed by Mölg et al. (J Glaciol 55:292-302, 2009) was selected for use in this region. Incorporating the proposed elevation modification into the equation reduced the bias in the modelled incoming longwave radiation for the validation site. It was found that applying the parameterisation optimised in the original work at Kilimanjaro produced good results at both the primary and validation site in this study, suggesting that this formulation may be robust for different high mountain regions.     

Estimation of Hourly Solar Radiation at the Surface under Cloudless Conditions on the Tibetan Plateau Using a Simple Radiation Model

In this study,the clear sky hourly global and net solar irradiances at the surface determined using SUNFLUX,a simple parameterization scheme,for three stations(Gaize,Naqu,and Lhasa) on the Tibetan Plateau were evaluated against observation data.Our modeled results agree well with observations.The correlation coefficients between modeled and observed values were > 0.99 for all three stations.The relative error of modeled results,in average was < 7%,and the root-mean-square variance was < 27 W m 2.The solar irradiances in the radiation model were slightly overestimated compared with observation data;there were at least two likely causes.First,the radiative effects of aerosols were not included in the radiation model.Second,solar irradiances determined by thermopile pyranometers include a thermal offset error that causes solar radiation to be slightly underestimated.The solar radiation absorbed by the ozone and water vapor was estimated.The results show that monthly mean solar radiation absorbed by the ozone is < 2% of the global solar radiation(< 14 W m 2).Solar radiation absorbed by water vapor is stronger in summer than in winter.The maximum amount of monthly mean solar radiation absorbed by water vapor can be up to 13% of the global solar radiation(95 W m 2).This indicates that water vapor measurements with high precision are very important for precise determination of solar radiation.     

Long-term comparisons of net radiation calculation schemes

Six commonly used models for calculating daily net radiation were tested against measured net radiation. Meteorological data from 32 and 7 consecutive years obtained at two temperate sites were used. The extensive duration of the datasets ensured that all weather conditions and extreme events were captured. A set of statistical procedures was used to evaluate the performance of the models. The mean bias errors ranged from 0.0 W m⁻² to 24.8 W m⁻² and 0.1–24.7 W m⁻² and root mean square error from 11.0 W m⁻² to 28.1 W m⁻² and 10.0–27.9 W m⁻² at the two sites respectively, for days without snow cover on the ground. The best agreement was found when locally calibrated model coefficients were used. Only negligible differences in model performances were found between the two sites and the differences were lower than the inaccuracies of the net radiation instruments used. Including days with snow cover in the analysis lead to a slight increase in the bias and scatter of the predictions. Model performances were in general better during summertime than wintertime. Altered albedo values during winter caused by generally low sun angles were likely the cause of this. Analysis showed that at least 5 years of data were needed to obtain stable calibration coefficients for local calibration of the models. Based on the results from this study, and due to their physical background, two physical based models were recommended for calculating daily values of net radiation under temperate climate regimes. A simple adjustment of the calibration coefficients based on climate regime was suggested for these models.     

The Energy Balance Experiment EBEX-2000. Part III: Behaviour and quality of the radiation measurements

An important part of the Energy Balance Experiment (EBEX-2000) was the measurement of the net radiation and its components. Since the terrain, an irrigated cotton field, could not be considered homogeneous, radiation measurements were made at nine sites using a variety of radiation instruments, including pyranometers, pyrgeometers and net radiometers. At several of these sites multiple instruments were employed, which enabled us to compare instruments and assess accuracies. At all sites the outgoing longwave and shortwave radiation and the net radiation were measured, while the incoming radiation was supposed to be uniformly distributed over the field and was therefore measured at three sites only. Net radiation was calculated for all sites from the sum of its four components, and compared with the direct measurement of net radiometers. The main conclusions were: (a) the outgoing shortwave radiation showed differences of up to 30 W m⁻² over the field; the differences were not clearly related to the irrigation events; (b) the outgoing longwave radiation showed differences of up to 50 W m⁻²; the differences increased during the periods of irrigation; (c) the net radiation showed differences of several tens of W m⁻² across the field, rising to 50 W m⁻² or more during the periods of irrigation; (d) the net radiation is preferably to be inferred from its four components, rather than measured directly, and (e) attention should be paid to the characteristics of pyranometers that measure the outgoing radiation, and thus are mounted upside down, while they are commonly calibrated in the upward position. The error in the net radiation at EBEX-2000 is estimated at max (25 W m⁻², 5%) per site during the day and 10 W m⁻² at night. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is supported by the National Science Foundation.     

The Arctic surface energy budget as simulated with the IPCC AR4 AOGCMs

Ensembles of simulations of the twentieth- and twentyfirst-century climate, performed with 20 coupled models for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment, provide the basis for an evaluation of the Arctic (70°–90°N) surface energy budget. While the various observational sources used for validation contain differences among themselves, some model biases and across-model differences emerge. For all energy budget components in the twentieth-century simulations (the 20C3M simulation), the across-model variance and the differences from observational estimates are largest in the marginal ice zone (Barents, Kara, Chukchi Seas). Both downward and upward longwave radiation at the surface are underestimated in winter by many models, and the ensenmble mean annual net surface energy loss by longwave radiation is 35 W/m², which is less than for the NCEP and ERA40 reanalyses but in line with some of the satellite estimates. Incoming solar radiation is overestimated by the models in spring and underestimated in summer and autumn. The ensemble mean annual net surface energy gain by shortwave radiation is 39 W/m², which is slightly less than for the observational based estimates, In the twentyfirst-century simulations driven by the SRES A2 scenario, increased concentrations of greenhouse gasses increase (average for 2080–2100 minus average for 1980–2000 averages) the annual average ensemble mean downward longwave radiation by 30.1 W/m². This was partly counteracted by a 10.7 W/m² reduction in downward shortwave radiation. Enhanced sea ice melt and increased surface temperatures increase the annual surface upward longwave radiation by 27.1 W/m² and reduce the upward shortwave radiation by 13.2 W/m², giving an annual net (shortwave plus longwave) surface radiation increase of 5.8 W/m² , with the maximum changes in summer. The increase in net surface radiation is largely offset by an increased energy loss of 4.4 W/m² by the turbulent fluxes.     

黄淮地区辐射模型适用性评价及参数优化

利用1961-2015年黄淮地区8个辐射站太阳辐射和日照时数等常规气象资料,分别评价6种常用的太阳总辐射和有效辐射估算模型在黄淮地区的适用性,同时采用多元回归分析和迭代等方法,对辐射参数进行优化调整,建立了适合本地区的辐射最优化估算模型.结果 表明:童宏良公式和邓根云公式分别在估算太阳总辐射和地面有效辐射时的误差最小,...     

Sensitivity studies on the calculation of the radiation balance of urban surfaces: I. Shortwave radiation

A rigorous model is developed to calculate the shortwave radiation incident on building surfaces, based on radiation enclosure theory. When compared with field measurements, the model predictions are found to be associated with errors of approximately 10 W m^–2, with underestimations of 5–10 W m^–2 being caused on some walls by neglect of specular reflections. The effects of various simplifying assumptions are tested. The assumption of isotropic sky radiation and the neglect of multiple reflections are found to lead to errors of 15 W m^–2 or less; the neglect of horizon obstructions and the use of albedos taken from the literature instead of measured values can result in errors of 50 W m^–2 or more. Although these magnitudes of errors are site-specific, it is concluded that the use of simplifications in the modelling of shortwave radiation incident on urban surfaces must be approached with care.     

An Assessment of Storage Terms in the Surface Energy Balance of a Subalpine Meadow in Northwest China

The heat storage terms in the soil-vegetation-atmosphere system may play an important role in the surface energy budget.In this paper,we evaluate the heat storage terms of a subalpine meadow based on a ficld experiment conducted in the complex terrain of the eastern Qilian Mountains of Northwest China and their impact on the closure of the surface energy balance under such non-ideal conditions.During the night, the average sum of the storage terms was -5.5 W m^-2,which corresponded to 10.4%of net radiation.The sum of the terms became positive at 0730 LST and negative again at about 1500 LST,with a maximum value of 19 W m^-2 observed at approximately 0830 LST.During the day,the average of the sum of the storage terms was 6.5 W m^-2,which corresponded to 4.0%of net radiation.According to the slopes obtained when linear regression of the net radiation and partitioned fluxes was forced through the origin,there is an imbalance of 14.0%in the subalpine meadow when the storage terms are not considered in the surface energy balance.This imbalance was improved by 3.4%by calculating the sum of the storage terms.The soil heat storage flux gave the highest contribution（1.59%）,while the vegetation enthalpy change and the rest of the storage terms were responsible for improvements of 1.04%and 0.77%,respectively.     

RETRIEVAL OF QINGHAI-XIZANG SASWR WITH ERBE AND ISCCP DATA

In the context of 1985—1988 ERBE and 1984—1988 ISCCP planetary scale albedoes and totalcloudiness in combination with Qinghai-Xizang actinometric measurements,investigation wasperformed of the climatic retrieval of surface absorbed shortwave radiation(SASWR)in theresearch highland.Evidence suggests that the method has given higher fitting accuracy with meanerror of 9.8 W m~(-2),whereupon was calculated the monthly mean SASWR flux density at thegridpoints of 2.5°×2.5°resolution over 25—40°N,75—95°E and 63 stations alongside a set of thedistribution maps prepared for its basic features.     

Sensitivity studies on the calculation of the radiation balance of urban surfaces: II. Longwave radiation

The model developed in Verseghy and Munro (1989) is extended to the calculation of the longwave radiation incident on building surfaces. When compared with field measurements, the average magnitude of error associated with model predictions is found to be 10 W m^–2. The effects of six simplifying assumptions are investigated. The neglect of horizon obstructions is found to lead to errors of up to 60 W m^–2; the assumption of wall temperatures equal to air temperatures results in errors of up to 35 W m^–2. The neglect of absorption and emission by air between pairs of walls causes errors of the same magnitude as those associated with the predictions of the rigorous model itself. Of the three remaining simplifying assumptions tested (the assumption of isotrophic sky radiation, the use of published values of emissivities instead of measured values, and the blackbody surface assumption), none results om errors >5 W m^–2. As in the shortware case, the errors are site-specific, but nevertheless indicate the care with which the use of simplifying assumptions must be approached.     

2011年2月—2012年1月东南极高原辐射平衡观测研究

利用东南极高原熊猫-1自动气象站2011年2月—2012年1月观测的辐射资料和相关资料,对辐射分量和辐射平衡的季节变化进行了研究。结果表明,夏季是东南极高原获得太阳能的主要时段,总辐射通量夏季平均为365.0 W/m²,总量达到2752.1 MJ/m²,占全年总辐射量的58%。各个季节均能出现总辐射瞬时值大于大气顶水平总辐射,春季发生频率最高,冬季最小,总辐射平均日变化呈单峰型。大气长波辐射除夏季外,日变化不明显。冰雪面长波辐射除冬季外,各季节平均日变化呈明显的单峰单谷型。净辐射12月和1月为很小的正值,其他月份为负值。年平均净辐射为 -8.7 W/m²,表明地表相对于大气为冷源。该站的辐射平衡特征与其他南极内陆高原站相似,雪面具有强烈的辐射冷却效应,导致净辐射绝对值都小于下降风区。     

利用Nimbus-7行星反射率观测资料估算青藏高原地区的总辐射

本文利用1982年8月—1983年7月期间Nimbus-7行星反射率的月平均资料用“物理模式方法(Raschke and Preuss,1979)”估算了青藏高原及其邻近地区月平均地面总辐射的分布。得到的结果较好地反映了纬度、海拔与云量三个主要因子对总辐射分布的支配作用。根据高原及其邻近地区23个测站的资料,对总辐射的计算值与观测值进行了比较。统计分析表明,相关系数f=0.90,标准误差RMS=27w/m~2,平均绝对误差ABS=21w/m~2(相当于有效平均总辐射的11.7％)。文中还对误差来源和敏感性问题进行了讨论。     

On the vertical profile of surface radiative fluxes in southwest Germany

Summary Vertical profile of surface radiative fluxes in an area of heterogeneous terrain in south-west Germany is presented. Main data sets utilized for the study were recorded during the REgio KLIma Projekt (REKLIP). Supporting observational data were provided by the German weather service and German geophysical consultant service. Elevation of the study sites ranged from 212 m a.s.l. to 1489 m a.s.l. From May to September, monthly mean albedo was generally low at the study sites, ranging from 19% to 24%. For the other months, monthly mean albedo lie between 22% and 25% at the lowland site but extended between 27% and 71% at the highly elevated mountain site. Following the altitudinal increase in surface albedo, net radiative flux and radiation efficiency declined with elevation at an annual mean of 1.15 Wm⁻²/100 m and 0.008/100 m respectively. Absorbed shortwave radiation and effective terrestrial radiation showed mean decline of 1.54 Wm⁻²/100 m and 0.34 Wm⁻²/100 m, respectively, with the mean sky-to-earth radiation deficit amounting to about 52 Wm⁻² for the lowland site and 73 Wm⁻² for the highest elevated site. Some empirical models which express shortwave and longwave radiative fluxes in terms of meteorological variables have been validated for the lowland and mountain sites. Monthly mean daily total estimates of solar radiation obtained from ?ngst?m-Prescott relation were quite consistent with observed values. Parameterisation of downward atmospheric radiation under all sky condition was achieved by extending Brutsaert clear sky atmospheric model. Relationship between outgoing longwave radiation and screen temperature at the study sites was best described by an exponential function unlike the linear relationship proposed by Monteith and Unsworth. Net radiative flux for the lowland and mountain sites has been expressed in terms of absorbed shortwave radiation, cloud amount and screen temperature. Received March 5, 2001 Revised October 29, 2001     

Comparison of Aircraft and Ground-Based FluxMeasurements during OASIS95

Aircraft and ground-based measurements made during the1995 Australian OASIS field campaign are compared. The aircraft data were recorded during low-level flightsat 6 m above ground level and grid flights at altitudes of between 15 and 65 m, allin unstable atmospheric conditions. The low-level flights revealed an inadequate temperaturesensor response time, a correction for which was determined from subsequent work ina wind tunnel. Aircraft and ground-based measurements of mean wind speed, wind directionand air temperature agree to within 0.2 m s^-1, 4° and 0.9 °C respectively.Comparisons between aircraft and ground-based observations of the standarddeviations of vertical velocity, horizontal wind speed, air temperature and specifichumidity have slopes of 0.96, 0.97, 0.92 and 0.99 respectively but the observed scatter isroughly twice the random error expected due to the averaging length of the aircraft data andthe averaging period of the ground-based data. For the low-level flights, the ground-basedand aircraft measurements of sensible and latent heat flux show mean differences of 27 and-25 W m^-2 respectively, which reduce to 11 and -4 W m^-2 respectivelywhen analysis of aircraft data is limited to areas immediately adjacent to the fluxtowers. For the flights at 15 to 65 m above ground level, the mean differences between theground-based and aircraft measurements of sensible and latent heat flux are -22 and-1 W m^-2 respectively and these change to -1 and -7 W m^-2 respectively oncethe effect of surface heterogeneity is included. Aircraft and ground-based measurementsof net radiation agree to within 6% at one ground-based site but differ by 20% at a second.Aircraft measurements of friction velocity at 6 m above the ground agree well withground-based data, but those from flights between 15 and 65 m above ground level do not.This is because at these heights the aircraft measurements provide the local shear stress,not the surface shear stress. Overall, the level of agreement allows confidence in the aircraftdata provided due care is taken of instrument response times and differences in thesurfaces sampled by aircraft and ground-based systems.     

Simple new methods to estimate global solar radiation based on meteorological data in Egypt

Three simple methods to estimate global solar radiation are proposed in addition to (Solar Energy 63 (1998) 147). All were tested seasonally and at different sky conditions at seven locations in Egypt. The methods use ground-based measurements of maximum and minimum temperature, daily mean of cloud cover and extraterrestrial global radiation. Average of root mean square differences (RMSD) for a comparison between observed and estimated global radiation for all locations tested was around 10% for the new methods and 13% for Supit–Van Kappel method. The coefficient of determination R² is higher for the new methods for all tested locations. Better results were obtained when applying the new methods to different seasons. The differences in root mean square error (RMSE) between the new methods and Ångstrom–Prescott method that is based on sunshine duration data were less than 1.0 MJ m⁻² day⁻¹ at all sites. On the whole, the performance statistics demonstrate that the new methods are better when compared by Ångstrom–Prescott method.     

The Summer Surface Energy Balance of the High Antarctic Plateau

The summertime surface energy balance (SEB) at Kohnen station, situated on the high Antarctic plateau (75°00′ S, 0°04′ E, 2892m above sea level) is presented for the period of 8 January to 9 February 2002. Shortwave and longwave radiation fluxes were measured directly; the former was corrected for problems associated with the cosine response of the instrument. Sensible and latent heat fluxes were calculated using the bulk method, and eddy-correlation measurements and the modified Bowen ratio method were used to verify these calculated fluxes. The calculated sub-surface heat flux was checked by comparing calculated to measured snow temperatures. Uncertainties in the measurements and energy-balance calculations are discussed. The general meteorological conditions were not extraordinary during the period of the experiment, with a mean 2-m air temperature of −27.5°C, specific humidity of 0.52×10⁻³kg kg⁻¹ and wind speed of 4.1ms⁻¹. The experiment covered the transition period from Antarctic summer (positive net radiation) to winter (negative net radiation), and as a result the period mean net radiation, sensible heat, latent heat and sub-surface heat fluxes were small with values of −1.1, 0.0, −1.0 and 0.7 Wm⁻², respectively. Daily mean net radiation peaked on cloudy days (16 Wm⁻²) and was negative on clear-sky days (minimum of −19 W m⁻²). Daily mean sensible heat flux ranged from −8 to +10 Wm⁻², latent heat flux from −4 to 0 Wm⁻² and sub-surface heat flux from −8 to +7 Wm⁻².     

Local energy exchanges in a shallow,coastal lagoon: Summer conditions

Abstract

Meteorological and hydrographic data from the Indian River lagoon on the Atlantic coast of South Florida are used to describe the magnitude and relative importance of local heat flux processes in a bar‐built estuary for summer conditions. Over a 72‐day period in 1979, the energy gain by absorbed net insolation, averaging 316 W m^‐2 is very nearly balanced by the energy loss due to net long‐wave radiation (‐61 W m^‐2), sensible heat loss (‐54 W m^‐2) and evaporation (‐194 W m^‐2). Day‐to‐day imbalances, however, result in cycles of heating and cooling over time scales on the order of 4–6 days. Water temperatures fluctuate only ±0.5–1.0°C about the seasonal normal, reflecting relatively stable meteorological conditions. Heat energy stored in these estuarine waters in summer months is most highly correlated with the absorption of net insolation.     

SOLAR RADIATION AT GROUND IN EAST-ASIA FROM DATA OF THE GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE GMS

A method(Rieland,1985)has been modified to determine the downward solar radiation at ground overEast Asia,using GMS-3 data of the satellite with a spatial resolution of 10×10 krn~2 and a time interval of 3hours.The distributions of the monthly mean global radiation are obtained for January,April,July and Octoberof 1985.These results illustrate that the topography effect of the Tibetan Plateau is not negligible.The valuesof global radiation over the high Tibetan Plateau during all seasons are higher than those in the lower-levelsurroundings.By comparing model results with ground observed data, the relative errors in monthly averagesof global radiation are 2.8％ for clear sky and 6.3％,5.3％,5.0％ and 4.5％ for cloudy sky in January,April,July and October,respectively.The relative error in daily global radiation during the snow-free season is lessthan 20％ and larger than 20％ in snow-covered winter.We,however,had no data for these comparisons whichwere measured directly at the Plateau during the year 1985.     

Estimation of daytime downward longwave radiation at the surface from satellite and grid point data

Summary A hybrid method is developed for the estimation of the daytime downward longwave radiation flux (DLF) at the surface. The method makes use of the grid point thermodynamic fields at the surface and at the 1000 and 850 hPa levels. The cloud parameters are derived from the infrared and visible image data of the satellite METEOSAT-2. The calculation of the DLF is split into a clear-sky contribution, which is calculated from empirical formulae, and a cloud contribution which depends on cloud amount, cloud base height, and temperature.A sensitivity test to perturbations in the relevant parameters resembles closely the response of a multispectral radiation scheme, however the humidity dependence under clear sky has been identified as a weak point. A comparison of the method using observed input parameters with simultaneous measurements of the DLF yields an RMS error of 12.2 W/m².The method is applied for mapping the DLF over western Europe and the Mediterranean using satellite images for two days near midday and ancillary grid point data obtained during the ALPEX experiment. A comparison with ground measurements of 4 stations in West Germany shows a mean deviation of 3.9 W/m² and an RMS error of 11.6 W/m². The method is a first attempt to estimate the DLF at regional scales from satellite data on the cloud field and grid point analysis data on the thermodynamic field.

---

Zusammenfassung Zur Schätzung des abwärts gerichteten langwelligen Strahlungsflusses (DLF) während des Tages an der Erdoberfläche wird eine Hybridmethode entwickelt. Die Methode verwendet Gitterpunkt-thermodynamische Felder am Boden und auf den 1000 und 850 h Pa-Flächen. Die Wolkenparameter stammen von den Bilddaten im infraroten und sichtbaren Bereich des Satelliten METEOSAT-2. Die Berechnung des DLF teilt sich in einen, aus empirischen Formeln berechneten Beitrag des wolkenlosen Himmels und einen Beitrag durch Wolken, welcher von der Wolkenmenge, von der Höhe der Wolkenbasis und der Temperatur abhängt.Ein Test der Empfindlichkeit auf Störungen in den relevanten Parametern ist der Reaktion eines multispektraligen Strahlungsschemas sehr ähnlich, obwohl die Feuchtigkeitsabhängigkeit unter wolkenlosem Himmel als Schwachpunkt herausgefunden wurde. Ein Vergleich der Methode unter Verwendung beobachteter Inputparameter bei gleichzeitigen Messungen des DLF ergibt einen RMS-Fehler von 12.2 W/m².Diese Methode wird für die Kartierung des DLF über Westeuropa und dem Mittelmeer angewendet. Dazu werden Satellitenbilder von zwei Tagen um Mittag und zusätzliche Gitterpunktdaten, die während des ALPEX-Experiments gewonnen wurden, verwendet. Ein Vergleich mit Bodenmessungen von 4 Stationen in West-deutschland zeigt eine mittlere Abweichung von 3.9 W/m² und einen RMS-Fehler von 11.6 W/m². Diese Methode ist ein erster Versuch, den DLF im regionalen Bereich aus Satellitendaten des Wolkenfeldes und Gitterpunkt-Analysedaten des thermodynamischen Feldes zu schätzen.

---

---

With 10 Figures