Spheroidal equal angular DEMs: The specificity of morphometric treatment

Digital elevation models (DEMs) are commonly constructed using two main types of regular grids: plane square grids and spheroidal equal angular grids. Methods and algorithms intended for plane square‐gridded DEMs should not be directly applied to spheroidal equal angular DEMs. This is because these grids have fundamentally different geometry. However, some researchers continue to apply square‐grid algorithms to spheroidal equal angular DEMs. It seems appropriate to consider once again the specifity of morphometric treatment of spheroidal equal angular DEMs. This article, first, demonstrates possibilities of direct calculation of local, nonlocal, and combined morphometric variables from spheroidal equal angular DEMs exemplified by slope gradient, catchment area, and topographic index. Second, the article shows computational errors when algorithms for plane square‐gridded DEMs are unreasonably applied to spheroidal equal angular DEMs. The study is exemplified by two DEMs. A medium‐resolution DEM of a relatively small, high‐mountainous area (Mount Elbrus) was extracted from the SRTM1 DEM. A low‐resolution DEM of a vast region with the diverse topography (the central and western regions of Kenya) was extracted from the SRTM30_PLUS DEM. The results show that application of square‐grid methods to spheroidal equal angular DEMs leads to substantial computational errors in models of morphometric variables.     

Lidar Elevation Data for Surface Hydrologic Modeling: Resolution and Representation Issues

This paper is concerned with the application of high spatial resolution elevation data derived from light detection and ranging technologies (lidar) to surface hydrologic modeling. In recent years, airborne lidar technology has been employed to develop high accuracy digital elevation models (DEMs) with horizontal resolution on the order of a few meters. As with any spatial data product there are limits to the lidar's practical use that vary with the intended application. This paper considers potential issues and challenges for the use of lidar-derived DEMs in surface hydrologic modeling applications, such as characterizing flow direction and power, identifying sub-basins in a watershed, and calculating upstream contributing area and other variables. We compare results using conventional 30m DEMs and 6m lidar for a high relief study area and a low relief study area. Results are more comparable between these data sources, regardless of hydrologic operation, for the high relief area, while the similarity of results in the low relief area is dependent upon the particular operation. Post-processing on the lidar data successfully removed such flow obstacles as bridges that might have artificially impeded surface flow. An exploration of the effect of spatial resolution on results suggests that cell size is a more significant factor than production method.     

The Effect of DEM Raster Resolution on First Order, Second Order and Compound Terrain Derivatives

It is well known that the grid cell size of a raster digital elevation model has significant effects on derived terrain variables such as slope, aspect, plan and profile curvature or the wetness index. In this paper the quality of DEMs derived from the interpolation of photogrammetrically derived elevation points in Alberta, Canada, is tested. DEMs with grid cell sizes ranging from 100 to 5 m were interpolated from 100 m regularly spaced elevation points and numerous surface‐specific point elevations using the ANUDEM interpolation method. In order to identify the grid resolution that matches the information content of the source data, three approaches were applied: density analysis of point elevations, an analysis of cumulative frequency distributions using the Kolmogorov‐Smirnov test and the root mean square slope measure. Results reveal that the optimum grid cell size is between 5 and 20 m, depending on terrain com‐plexity and terrain derivative. Terrain variables based on 100 m regularly sampled elevation points are compared to an independent high‐resolution DEM used as a benchmark. Subsequent correlation analysis reveals that only elevation and local slope have a strong positive relationship while all other terrain derivatives are not represented realistically when derived from a coarse DEM. Calculations of root mean square errors and relative root mean square errors further quantify the quality of terrain derivatives.     

A Comparison Between Contour Elevation Data Sources for DEM Creation and Soil Carbon Prediction, Coshocton, Ohio

A raster and vector GIS was created for the North Appalachian Experimental Watershed (NAEW) from legacy (1960) 1:2,400‐scale contour maps. The intent of the study was to use terrain data for the spatial modeling of soil organic carbon. It was hypothesized that DEMs derived from these data would be more accurate and therefore more useful for terrain‐based soil modeling than those from USGS 1:24,000‐scale contour data. Central tasks for this study were to digitally capture the 1:2,400‐scale maps, convert digital contour data sources to raster DEMs at multiple resolutions, and derive terrain attributes. A flexible approach was adopted, using software outside of mainstream GIS sources where scientifically or practically advantageous. Elevation contours and streamlines were converted to raster DEMs using ANUDEM. DEMs ranging in resolution from 0.5–30 m were tested for accuracy against precision carrier‐phase GPS data. The residual standard deviation was 1.68 meters for the USGS DEM and 0.36 meters for the NAEW DEM. The optimal horizontal resolution for the NAEW DEM was 5 m and for the USGS 10 m. Five and 10 m resolution DEMs from both data sources were tested for carbon prediction. Multiple terrain parameters were derived as proxies for surficial processes. Soil samples (n = 184) were collected on four zero‐order watersheds (conventional tillage, no‐till, hay and pasture). Multiple least squares regressions (m.l.s.) were used to predict mass C (kg m^?2, 30 cm depth) from topographic information. Model residuals were not spatially autocorrelated. Statistically significant topographic parameters were attained most consistently from the 5 m NAEW DEM. However, topography was not a strong predictor of carbon for these watersheds, with r² ranging from 0.23 to 0.58.     

机载LiDAR点云生成多尺度DEM方法

为了利用机载激光雷达点云生成高保真、多尺度的数字高程模型(DEM),提出了一种基于综合生成策略的方法:首先,利用点云数据中的地面点生成高分辨率、高保真的DEM作为基础DEM;然后,通过迭代的方式对上一层较高分辨的DEM进行综合获取较低分辨率、高保真的DEM。实验表明,本文方法不仅具有可行性,而且生成的多尺度DEM具有高保真的特性。     

LIDAR Data and Hydrological Applications at the Basin Scale

Digital elevation models (DEMs) resulting from LIDAR (light detection and ranging) surveys are now more available in the hydrology and hydraulics (H&H) community, not only for hydraulic applications in small areas close to river networks but also for hydrologic applications in whole basins. Several questions arise when trying to combine LIDAR data and hydrologic models. Despite the long processing time, LIDAR-derived DEMs can provide more accurate information that is useful for basin hydrogeomorphic characterization, in comparison with DEMs at resolutions commonly used in hydrologic applications (cell size 20-30 m). Of particular focus here are river network properties and the instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH) framework. Two case studies, one in Italy and the other in the USA, are presented in which three DEMs are analyzed with differing resolutions as follows: "standard," i.e., a resolution commonly used in hydrologic applications (cell size 20-30 m), LIDAR (cell size 1-2.5 m), and LIDAR-resampled at the same resolution as the "standard" DEM. Results suggest that the higher spatial resolution LIDAR-derived data are preferable and can introduce more detailed information about basin hydrogeomorphic behavior.     

利用图割算法进行城市密集点云表面模型重建

利用倾斜影像获得的密集点云来构建表面模型是基于倾斜影像进行三维重建的核心之一。本文针对现行密集点云表面模型重建存在的建模效率低、表面选取不真实等问题,提出了一种基于图割算法的城市密集点云表面模型重建方法。利用该方法重建城市密集点云表面模型,首先通过预处理软件对无人机倾斜影像进行空中三角测量,并利用空中三角测量的解算结果生成密集点云;然后对密集点云添加相应的边,同时对三维点云根据距离进行选取合并;最后根据三维点云形成的四面体和三角面建立图割问题,并通过求解图割问题来求取最优的密集点云表面模型。为证明这种方法的可行性和有效性,使用城市地区的无人机倾斜影像数据进行城市密集点云表面模型重建,试验结果表明,该方法具有可行性好、建模效果好、处理速度快等优势。     

Towards 3D map generation from digital aerial images

This paper describes the fusion of information extracted from multispectral digital aerial images for highly automatic 3D map generation. The proposed approach integrates spectral classification and 3D reconstruction techniques. The multispectral digital aerial images consist of a high resolution panchromatic channel as well as lower resolution RGB and near infrared (NIR) channels and form the basis for information extraction.Our land use classification is a 2-step approach that uses RGB and NIR images for an initial classification and the panchromatic images as well as a digital surface model (DSM) for a refined classification. The DSM is generated from the high resolution panchromatic images of a specific photo mission. Based on the aerial triangulation using area and feature-based points of interest the algorithms are able to generate a dense DSM by a dense image matching procedure. Afterwards a true ortho image for classification, panchromatic or color input images can be computed.In a last step specific layers for buildings and vegetation are generated and the classification is updated.     

A GIS numerical framework to study the process basis of scaling statistics in river networks

A new geographic information system (GIS) numerical framework (NF), called CUENCAS, for flows in river networks is presented. The networks are extracted from digital elevation models (DEMs). The program automatically partitions a basin into hillslopes and channel links that are required to correspond to these features in an actual terrain. To investigate the appropriate DEM resolution for this correspondence, we take a high-resolution DEM at 10-m pixel size, and create DEMs at eight different resolutions in increments of 10 m by averaging. The extracted networks from 10-30 m remain about the same, even though there is a tenfold reduction in the number of pixels. By contrast, the extracted networks show increasing distortions of the original network from 40-90 m DEMs. We show the presence of statistical self-similarity (scaling) in the probability distributions of drainage areas in a Horton-Strahler framework using CUENCAS. The NF for flows takes advantage of the hillslope-link decomposition of an actual terrain and specifies mass and momentum balance equations and physical parameterizations at this scale. These equations are numerically solved. An application of NF is given to test different physical assumptions that produce statistical self-similarity in spatial peak flow statistics in a Horton-Strahler framework.     

Improved Priority‐Flood method for depression filling by redundant calculation optimization in local micro‐relief areas

Depression filling is a critical step in distributed hydrological modeling using digital elevation models (DEMs). The traditional Priority‐Flood (PF) approach is widely used due to its relatively high efficiency when dealing with a small‐sized DEM. However, it seems inadequate and inefficient when dealing with large high‐resolution DEMs. In this work, we examined the relationship between the PF algorithm calculation process and the topographical characteristics of depressions, and found significant redundant calculations in the local micro‐relief areas in the conventional PF algorithm. As such calculations require more time when dealing with large DEMs, we thus propose a new variant of the PF algorithm, wherein redundant points and calculations are recognized and eliminated based on the local micro‐relief water‐flow characteristics of the depression‐filling process. In addition, depressions and flatlands were optimally processed by a quick queue to improve the efficiency of the process. The proposed method was applied and validated in eight case areas using the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission digital elevation model (SRTM‐DEM) with 1 arc‐second resolution. These selected areas have different data sizes. A comparative analysis among the proposed method, the Wang and Liu‐based PF, the improved Barnes‐based PF, the improved Zhou‐based PF, and the Planchon and Darboux (P&D) algorithms was conducted to evaluate the accuracy and efficiency of the proposed algorithm. The results showed that the proposed algorithm is 43.2% (maximum) faster than Wang and Liu's variant of the PF method, with an average of 31.8%. In addition, the proposed algorithm achieved similar performance to the improved Zhou‐based PF algorithm, though our algorithm has the advantage of being simpler. The optimal strategies using the proposed algorithm can be employed in various landforms with high efficiency. The proposed method can also achieve good depression filling, even with large amounts of DEM data.     

Downscaling Landsat-8 land surface temperature maps in diverse urban landscapes using multivariate adaptive regression splines and very high resolution auxiliary data

ABSTRACT

We propose a method for spatial downscaling of Landsat 8-derived LST maps from 100(30?m) resolution down to 2–4?m with the use of the Multiple Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) models coupled with very high resolution auxiliary data derived from hyperspectral aerial imagery and large-scale topographic maps. We applied the method to four Landsat 8 scenes, two collected in summer and two in winter, for three British towns collectively representing a variety of urban form. We used several spectral indices as well as fractional coverage of water and paved surfaces as LST predictors, and applied a novel method for the correction of temporal mismatch between spectral indices derived from aerial and satellite imagery captured at different dates, allowing for the application of the downscaling method for multiple dates without the need for repeating the aerial survey. Our results suggest that the method performed well for the summer dates, achieving RMSE of 1.40–1.83?K prior to and 0.76–1.21?K after correction for residuals. We conclude that the MARS models, by addressing the non-linear relationship of LST at coarse and fine spatial resolutions, can be successfully applied to produce high resolution LST maps suitable for studies of urban thermal environment at local scales.     

QUALITY CONTROL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRICALLY SAMPLED DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS

The object of this paper is to study the geometric accuracy of photogrammetrically sampled digital elevation models (DEMs)obtained by using an on line graphical DEM editor. As a reference, DEMs obtained by regular grid measurements have been used. Three different test areas are used in the study, each representing different ground types and degrees of homogeneity. The DEMs have been evaluated with respect to their standard errors in elevation, slope and curvature. The results show that the standard errors are not improved by using the on line DEM editor. It is also demonstrated that an increased point density decreases the standard error in elevation while its effect on the standard error in slope is limited. The standard error in curvature is almost independent of the point density.     

利用网络图进行高分辨率航空多视影像密集匹配

提出了一种基于网络图的高分辨率航空多视影像密集匹配算法。首先利用影像间的重叠关系和方向确定候选立体像对并构建网络图;在立体像对密集匹配阶段,引入导向中值滤波采用由粗到精的改进半全局匹配(SGM)算法进行双向视差图生成;最后基于所有立体像对构建的网络图完成多视影像间的密集点云生成及融合。试验选取了ISPRS的Vaihingen航空影像和ISPRS/EuroSDR项目的苏黎世倾斜下视影像进行试验,结果表明:本文算法对高分辨率多视影像密集匹配是有效可行的,无论在匹配完整性、效率、精度上都能获取较好的结果,重建的密集点云平均反投影误差的中误差可以达到亚像素级精度,实际精度可以达到1.5倍GSD,并且在建筑物、植被、水体等视差不连续、弱纹理或重复纹理区域也取得了较好的匹配结果。     

The 13th Asian conference on remote sensing,Mongolia

Abstract

Three spatial resolutions of airborne remote sensing imagery (60 cm, 1 m, and 2 m) collected over multi‐layer aspen, pine, spruce, and mixedwood forest stands in Alberta on July 18^th, 1998 were tested for their ability to provide a statistical stand discrimination based on spatial co‐occurrence texture analysis. As spatial resolution increased, classification accuracies increased. The highest classification accuracy of 86.7% was obtained using the highest image spatial resolution data (60 cm), with spatial co‐occurrence texture and spectral signatures combined, and a thirteen‐class multi‐layer stand stratification. The texture of the highest spatial resolution imagery (60 cm pixel resolution) was interpreted to contain information on the crown architecture of individual trees. In larger windows, the texture was interpreted to contain information on stand structure. Texture of lower spatial resolution imagery (1 m and 2 m pixel resolution) could not detect individual tree crown architecture and was determined to be related primarily to stand structure characteristics. The use of texture channels improved the per‐plot classification accuracies by 15.7%, compared to the use of the spectral data alone.     

Topographic correction of ALOS-PALSAR images using InSAR-derived DEM

Topographic corrections of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images over hilly regions are vital for retrieval of correct backscatter values associated with natural targets. The coarse resolution external digital elevation models (DEM) available for topographic corrections of high resolution SAR images often result into degradation of spatial resolution or improper estimation of backscatter values in SAR images. Also, many a times the external DEMs do not spatially co-register well with the SAR data. The present study showcases the methodology and results of topographic correction of ALOS-PALSAR image using high resolution DEM generated from the same data. High resolution DEMs of Jaipur region, India were generated using multiple pair SAR images acquired from ALOS-PALSAR using interferometric (InSAR) techniques. The DEMs were validated using differential global positioning system measured elevation values as ground control points and were compared with photogrammetric DEM (advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer – ASTER) and SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) DEM. It was observed that ALOS-PALSAR images with optimum baseline parameters produced high resolution DEM with better height accuracy. Finally, the validated DEM was used for topographic correction of ALOS-PALSAR images of the same region and were found to produce better result as compared with ASTER and SRTM-DEM.     

Measuring the accuracy of contour interpolated digital elevation models

Digital elevation models (DEM) are becoming increasingly important as tools in hydrological research and water resources management. Since error and uncertainty are inherently associated with spatial data, a complete evaluation of a DEM is of utmost importance before it is put into subsequent analysis. The present paper offers an innovative approach for quality assessment of contour interpolated DEMs of different resolutions. Five most frequently cited interpolation methods viz., TIN with linear interpolation, Inverse Distance Weighing, Thin Plate Spline, Ordinary Kriging and TOPOGRID were selected for gridding of contours at five different resolutions i.e., 30m, 45m, 60m, 75m and 90m. In order to compare the quality of interpolated DEMs, a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of inter-polated DEMs for their vertical, horizontal and shape accuracy were carried out. It was found that different interpolation methods produced DEMs with different levels of artifacts. The analyses of vertical accuracy suggested that the variations were not pronounced in nature. However, the quantitative comparisons for horizontal and shape accuracy showed that there was a high level of disparity with significant differences among the interpolated DEMs.     

High Resolution DEM Generation in High‐Alpine Terrain Using Airborne Remote Sensing Techniques

Up‐to‐date and accurate digital elevation models (DEMs) are essential for many applications such as numerical modeling of mass movements or mapping of terrain changes. Today the Federal Department of Topography, swisstopo, provides Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) and Digital Surface Models (DSMs) derived from airborne LiDAR data with a high spatial resolution of 2 m covering the entire area of Switzerland below an elevation of 2000 m a.s.l.. However, above an elevation of 2000 m a.s.l., which is typical for high‐alpine terrain, the best product available is the a DTM with a spatial resolution of 25 m. This spatial resolution is insufficient for many applications in complex terrain. In this study, we investigate the quality of DSMs derived from opto‐electronic scanner data (ADS80; acquired in autumn 2010) using photogrammetric image correlation techniques based on the multispectral nadir and backward looking sensor data. As reference, we take a high precision airborne LiDAR data set with a spatial resolution of ca. 0.5 m, acquired in late summer 2010, covering the Grabengufer/Dorfbach catchment near Randa, VS. We find the deviations between the two datasets are surprisingly low. In terrain with inclination angles of less than 30° the RMSE is below 0.5 m. In extremely steep terrain of more than 50° the RMSE goes up to 2 m and outliers increase significantly. We also find dependencies of the deviations on illumination conditions and ground cover classes. Finally we discuss advantages and disadvantages of the different data acquisition methods.     

高光谱遥感积雪制图算法及验证

雪盖面积是高山地区和季节雪盖区水文和气象模型的重要输入因子。机载和星载遥感数据提取的雪盖面积是融雪径流模型的重要组成部分。对应不同传感器件的光谱特征，多种分类方法被相继提出。但是，缺乏相对独立的验证手段来评价各种分类方法，其主要原因是缺乏地面真实状态。针对该现状，本研究利用高光谱图像的细分光谱特征，建立高光谱影像及其对应“地面真相”的像对数据库来发展和验证积雪制图算法，并展示MODIS积雪制图算法验证和ASTER混合像元分解雪盖制图算法研究的应用实例。     

全球高分辨率数字高程模型研究进展与展望

简要介绍了数字高程模型（digital elevation model,DEM）的起源与定义,根据4种不同的观测平台分类介绍了DEM数据获取方法,给出目前国际上发布的高分辨率全球DEM的主要性质和特点。重点介绍了9大类全球DEM,分析了DEM质量评估相关的评定方法和精度指标。论述了DEM在地质灾害监测、海岸带脆弱性分析方面的应用,以美国地质勘探局和德国航空太空中心正在开展的DEM项目为例,讨论了高精度、高分辨率全球同质DEM和地形测深高程模型的最新需求,最后总结展望全球高分辨率DEM的发展趋势。     

Uncertainty analysis of soil erosion modelling using different resolution of open-source DEMs

The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is one of the important parameters of soil erosion assessment and notable uncertainties are found in using different resolutions of the DEM. Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation model has been applied to analyze the effect of open-source DEMs with different resolution and accuracy on the uncertainties of soil erosion modelling in a part of the Narmada river basin in Madhya Pradesh in central India. Selected open-source DEMs are GTOPO30 (1 km), SRTM (30 and 90 m), CARTOSAT (30 m) and ASTER (30 m), used for estimating erosion rate. Results with better accuracy are achieved with the high-resolution DEMs (30 m) with higher vertical accuracy than the coarse resolution DEMs with lower accuracy. This study has presented potential uncertainties introduced by the open-source DEMs in soil erosion modelling for better understanding of appropriate selection and acceptable errors for researchers.