Distribution and content of137+134Cs and90Sr in the water of the North Sea during the years 1982 to 1984

Summary In continuation of the investigations of previous years (Kautsky [1973, 1976, 1985]; Kautsky, Jefferies, and Steele [1980]), besides surface water samples, water samples were also taken at depth for the first time along the entire station grid northwards of 53° 30 N (1982) and 53° N (1984).The fundamental distribution pattern of the^137+134Cs in the North Sea, within certain limits was practically analogous with that of the previous years. In the South and westwards of Jutland, on the basis of steep activity concentration gradients, one can again clearly recognize the boundary between the water coming out of the Channel from the South and the water coming from the North along the English coast. In the surface water, this boundary between the two water masses — as in previous years — lies between 6° E and 7° E.However, in deep water westwards of Jutland, clear differences of the distribution are observed between the years 1982 and 1984. In August/September 1982, a clear front in the entire water column between surface and bottom is present (Fig. 11). A comparable pattern, in principle, is indicated by the salinity distribution (Fig. 13). In comparison with it, in May/June 1984, a clearly stronger advance of the deep water (on the basis of the activity concentration differences) in the direction of Jutland compared with the surface water is recognizable (Fig. 12). Here also this effect appeared in outline to a certain extent in the salinity distribution (Fig. 14). Altogether, the content of radio caesium in the water of the North Sea from 1982 to 1984 has decreased by 30%. In 1984, it totalled, approximately 2400 TBq^137+134Cs, only 0.5% of the circa 481000 TBq⁴⁰K present in nature in the North Sea.

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Verteilung und Gehalt von^137+134Cs und⁹⁰Sr im Wasser der Nordsee in den Jahren 1982 bis 1984

Zusammenfassung In Weiterführung der Untersuchungen vorhergehender Jahre (Kautsky [1973, 1976, 1985]; Kautsky, Jefferies, und Steele [1980]) wurden erstmalig neben Oberflächenwasserproben auf dem gesamten Stationsnetz nördlich von 53° 30 N (1982) und 53° N (1984) auch Tiefenwasserproben entnommen.Das grundsätzliche Verteilungsmuster des^137+134Cs in der Nordsee gleicht im Rahmen einer gewissen Variationsbreite praktisch dem der vorhergehenden Jahre. Im Süden und westlich von Jütland ist anhand der steilen Aktivitätskonzentrationsgradienten wieder deutlich die Grenze zwischen dem aus dem Kanal von Süden und dem entlang der englischen Küste von Norden kommenden Wasser zu erkennen. Im Oberflächenwasser leigt diese Grenze zwischen den beiden Wassermassen — wie auch in den Vorjahren — zwischen 6° E und 7° E.Im Tiefenwasser westlich Jütland sind zwischen den Jahren 1982 und 1984 aber deutliche Unterschiede der Verteilung zu beobachten. Im August/September 1982 ist eine klare Front in der gesamten Wassersäule zwischen Oberfläche und Boden vorhanden (Abb. 11). Ein im Prinzip vergleichbares Muster zeigt die Salzgehaltsverteilung (Abb. 13). Dagegen ist im Mai/Juni 1984 ein deutlich stärkeres Vordringen des Tiefenwassers (anhand der Aktivitätskonzentrationsunterschiede) in Richtung Jütland gegenüber dem Oberflächenwasser erkennbar (Abb. 12). Auch hier zeichnet sich dieser Effekt bis zu einem gewissen Grad in der Salzgehaltsverteilung ab (Abb. 14). Insgesamt hat der Gehalt des Radiocaesium im Wasser der Nordseee von 1982 bis 1984 um 30% abgenommen. Er beträgt 1984 mit rund 2400 TBq^137+134Cs nur 0,5% der in der Nordsee von Natur aus vorhandenen rund 481 000 TBq⁴⁰K.

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Distribution et concentration du caesium 137 et 134 et du strontium 90 dans les eaux de la Mer du Nord au cours des années 1982 et 1984

Résumé Pendant la continuation des recherches des années antérieures (Kautsky [1973, 1976, 1985]; Kautsky, Jefferies et Steele [1980]) et en plus des prélèvements d'eau de surface, on a aussi prélevé pour la première fois, des échantillons d'eau profonde à toutes les stations du réseau au Nord du parallèle 53° 30 N (1982) et du parallèle 53° N (1984).Le modèle fondamental de distribution du caesium 137 et 134 en Mer du Nord est pratiquement analogue, à l'intérieur de certaines limites de latitude, à celui des années antérieures. Dans le Sud et à l'Ouest du Jutland, on peut encore reconnaître clairement, sur la base de forts gradients de concentration d'activité, la frontière entre les eaux venant de la Manche par le Sud et les eaux pénétrant par le Nord le long de la côte anglaise. Pour l'eau de surface, cette frontière entre les deux masses d'eau s'étend, comme dans les années antérieures, entre les méridiens 6° E et 7° E.Cependant, en eau profonde à l'Ouest du Jutland, de réelles différences de distributions ont été observées entre les années 1982 et 1984. En août-septembre 1982, un front net est présent dans toute la colonne d'eau comprise entre la surface et le fond (Fig. 11). Un modèle comparable, dans le principe, est indiqué par la distribution de la salinité (Fig. 13). Par contre en mai–juin 1984 on peut reconnaître, une progression significativement plus forte de l'eau profonde (sur la base des différences de concentration d'activité comparée à celle de l'eau de surface en direction du Jutland (Fig. 12). Ici aussi cet effet est apparu jusqu'à un certain degré dans la distribution de la salinité (Fig. 14). Tout compte fait, la concentration de caesium radioactif a diminué de 30% dans la Mer du Nord entre 1982 et 1984. En 1984 le caesium 137 et 134 totalisait approximativement 2400 TBq ce qui représente seulement 0,5% des 481 000 TBq environ de potassium 40 présent au naturel dans la Mer du Nord.

     

The state of Lake Ladoga pollution by global 90Sr, 137Cs, and 239,240Pu

The state of radioactive pollution of Lake Ladoga has been studied. The purification half-life of lake water from ⁹⁰Sr was found to be 21.7 year. The ratio of ⁹⁰Sr storage in lake water volume to its storage in silts (0?C10 cm layer) was 2: 1. Lake water purification from global ¹³⁷Cs was slower than that from ¹³⁷Cs originating from Chernobyl emergency emission because of the chronic supplement of global ¹³⁷Cs reserve by atmospheric fallouts. The behavior of ⁹⁰Sr, ¹³⁷Cs, and ^239,240Pu in bed soils was in agreement with the geochemical nature of the elements. By the distribution of ^{239, 240}Pu in bed soils, the sedimentation of substances of non-radiation nature was estimated at 0.3 and 0.5 mm/year at denting and flat relief, respectively.     

Distribution of 137Cs in the Lena River estuary-Laptev Sea system.

Surface sediment samples in the Laptev Sea have average 137Cs content of 7.1 Bq kg(-1), a value intermediate between that of the western Kara Sea (23 Bq kg(-1) and the East Siberian Sea (4.2 Bq kg-'). Both surface sediment content and sediment inventory of 137Cs in the Laptev Sea sediments show significant variability, and the influence of a variety of environmental factors.137Cs concentrations in the Laptev Sea surface sediments range from 0.8 to 16 Bq kg(-1). There is a marked increase in 137Cs content of surface sediment samples collected near the Lena River delta, and a local enrichment in the 137Cs inventories at these sites is also evident. Fine-grained mixed-layer illite/ smectite rich sediments in the estuary provide effective adsorption sites to fix 137Cs, in spite of desorption processes associated with low salinities in estuarine mixing. The Lena River-Laptev Sea mixing zone is a major site of sea-ice production. River and shelf sediments are incorporated into sea-ice formed in this region (Holmes and Creager, 1974). The irregular 137Cs activity profiles of the Lena River estuary cores indicate disturbance or removal of 137Cs-laden sediments via sea-ice related processes. Lena River and Estuary sediments may have served as a secondary source (i.e. other than direct fallout) of 137Cs in sea-ice. North-east of the Lena River estuary, sediment contains a thin layer of 137Cs-bearing material over an erosion surface. The 137Cs-laden surface layer may be the result of transient deposition of estuarine sediments being delivered by sea-ice or spring floods.     

Spatial distribution of water mass pollution characteristics in the Barents Sea

Digital databases on 444 stations were used to carry out statistical analysis of regularities in the spatial distribution of Barents Sea water pollution. The analysis was focused on the concentrations in water of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn) and toxic organic compounds: hexachlorocyclohexanes, hexachlorobenzene, chlordans, DDT, polychlorbiphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and normal paraffins. The statistical analysis of data on pollutants was carried out along two major directions in their distribution: the vertical—in the surface and bottom water layers; and the horizontal—over water masses. Reliable differences were identified in the pollution level of different water masses of the Barents Sea. The frontal zone was found to concentrate pollution.     

Content of radio caesium in the water of the Northern North Atlantic during the year 1985

The relative great number of data of the radio caesium activity concentrations in the water of the northern North Atlantic gained in 1985 from a station network between 60°N to 80°N and 16°W to 22°E provides a good basis for a fairly realistic calculation of the inventory of radio caesium in this region. In the area taken into account for the calculation, between 60°N to 80°N and 20°W to 22°E, an inventory of about 11000 TB_q (including background activity from fallout) has been found. That corresponds to about 40% of the caesium 137 released by the Scllafield Works between 1958 and 1980 and La Hague between 1966 and 1980, decay corrected to 1985.     

Sources of polyfluoroalkyl compounds in the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Norwegian Sea: Evidence from their spatial distribution in surface water

The spatial distribution of 15 polyfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs) in surface water was investigated in the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Norwegian Sea. In addition, an interlaboratory comparison of the sampling techniques and analysis was conducted. Highest concentration in the North Sea was found near the coast, whereas the ∑PFC concentration decreased rapidly from 18.4 to 0.07 ng l⁻¹ towards the open North Sea. The river Elbe could identify as a local input source for PFCs into the North Sea, whereas perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) was transported into the sampling area with the easterly current. In contrast to the North Sea, the distribution of PFCs in the Baltic Sea was relatively homogenous, where diffuse sources dominated. In general, the composition profile was influenced from local sources caused by human activities, whereas atmospheric depositions of here analysed PFCs were negligible, but it could have possibly an influence on low contaminated sites like the open North Sea or Norwegian Sea.     

The distribution of 137Cs in surface intertidal sediments from the Solway Firth

The distribution of ¹³⁷Cs from the Sellafield (Windscale) nuclear fuel reprocessing plant has been examined in detail in the surface intertidal sediments of the inner Solway Firth by means of a hovercraft-borne radiometric survey. With the exception of a belt of relatively active sands to the south of Silloth, caesium distribution is generally consistent with that of fine-grained sediment such that the highest concentrations occur in mud flat and salt marsh sediments which are most extensive in sheltered coastal embayments. ¹³⁷Cs activities in July 1980 were typically 2–30 pCi g^?1 but locally exceeded 50 pCi g^?1. These levels are considerably lower than those recorded in locations, such as the outer Solway and Ravenglass estuary, which are closer to the Sellafield outfall.     

Eddy-permitting simulations of the sub-polar North Atlantic: impact of the model bias on water mass properties and circulation

Some previous studies demonstrated that model bias has a strong impact on the quality of long-term prognostic model simulations of the sub-polar North Atlantic Ocean. Relatively strong bias of water mass characteristics is observed in both eddy-permitting and eddy-resolving simulations, suggesting that an increase of model resolution does not reduce significantly the model bias. This study is an attempt to quantify the impact of model bias on the simulated water mass and circulation characteristics in an eddy-permitting model of the sub-polar ocean. This is done through comparison of eddy-permitting prognostic model simulations with the results from two other runs in which the bias is constrained by using spectral nudging. In the first run, the temperature and salinity are nudged towards climatology in the whole column. In the second run, the spectral nudging is applied in the surface 30 m layer and at depths below 560 m only. The biases of the model characteristics of the unconstrained run are similar to those reported in previous eddy-permitting and eddy-resolving studies. The salinity in the surface and intermediate waters of the Labrador Sea waters increases with respect to the climatology, which reduces the stability of the water column. The deep convection in the unconstrained run is artificially intensified and the transport in the sub-polar gyre stronger than in the observations. In particular, the transport of relatively salty and warm Irminger waters into the Labrador Sea is unrealistically high. While the water mass temperature and salinity in the run with spectral nudging in the whole column are closest to the observations, the depth of the winter convection is underestimated in the model. The water mass characteristics and water transport in the run with spectral nudging in the surface and deep layers only are close to observations and at the same time represent well the deep convection in terms of its intensity and position. The source of the bias in the prognostic model run is discussed.     

The size, mass, and composition of plastic debris in the western North Atlantic Ocean

This study reports the first inventory of physical properties of individual plastic debris in the North Atlantic. We analyzed 748 samples for size, mass, and material composition collected from surface net tows on 11 expeditions from Cape Cod, Massachusetts to the Caribbean Sea between 1991 and 2007. Particles were mostly fragments less than 10 mm in size with nearly all lighter than 0.05 g. Material densities ranged from 0.808 to 1.24 g ml⁻¹, with about half between 0.97 and 1.04 g ml⁻¹, a range not typically found in virgin plastics. Elemental analysis suggests that samples in this density range are consistent with polypropylene and polyethylene whose densities have increased, likely due to biofouling. Pelagic densities varied considerably from that of beach plastic debris, suggesting that plastic particles are modified during their residence at sea. These analyses provide clues in understanding particle fate and potential debris sources, and address ecological implications of pelagic plastic debris.     

Marine litter distribution and composition in the North Sea

Following the development of marine litter surveillance methodologies for use on beaches, this study shows the feasibility of similar surveys at sea. The results indicate widespread distribution of marine litter in the surface waters of the North Sea, especially plastics. Not only does this draw attention to the need for the implementation of Annexe V of the MARPOL Convention, but serious consideration should be given now to the designation of the North Sea as a ‘special area’ such that the dumping of all garbage from ships, except food wastes, should be prohibited.     

The influence of tides, wind and waves on the net sand transport in the North Sea

Large-scale redistribution of sand by hydrodynamical processes in shelf seas is important for basin and coastal evolution on time scales of a thousand to tens of thousands of years. The influence of tides on the large-scale net sand-transport patterns in the North Sea has received much attention, but the influence of wind-driven flow and wind waves has hardly been investigated. Here, to establish the present-day situation and to develop a method that can also be used for palaeo-situations and forecasts for different sea levels, this influence is assessed for the present southern North Sea using a numerical flow model, a parametric wave model and a wave-averaged sand-transport formulation. Various forcing combinations are used to identify the dominant transport mechanisms: tides only, tides and wind, tides and waves, and combined tides, wind and waves. Wind forcing is applied in two ways to find an efficient, but still representative, method of incorporating this stochastic process: a statistical wind climatology and an observed time series. The results show that (i) the wind climatology yields a good approximation of the sand transport computed using the time series; (ii) wind-driven flow and waves only contribute significantly to the net sand transport by tides when acting together where tidal currents are small; and (iii) various combinations of forcings dominate the net sand transport in different regions of the southern North Sea: (a) tides dominate in the southern, middle and northwestern parts of the Southern Bight and in the region of The Wash; (b) tides, wind-driven flow and waves all are important in the northeastern part of the Southern Bight; and (c) wind-driven flow and waves dominate north of the Friesian Islands, in the German Bight and on the Dogger Bank. Qualitative comparison with observations shows good agreement.     

Concentrations of 137Cs, 90Sr, 108m Ag, 239+240 Pu and atom ratio of 240Pu/239Pu in tanner crabs, Chionoecetes japonicus and Chionoecetes opilio collected around Japan

The anthropogenic radionuclides, ¹³⁷Cs, ⁹⁰Sr, ^108mAg, ^239+240Pu, were measured in two Chionoecetes species, red queen crab (Chionoecetes japonicus) and snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) collected around Japan during 1996–2007. There was no increase in the concentrations of these radionuclides and no large variation of the atom ratio of ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu during this research period. These results indicated that the source of the radionuclides was not the radioactive wastes dumped by the former USSR and Russia and originated from past nuclear weapon tests. The higher atom ratio in the crab species than that from global fallout would be contributed by the Pacific Proving Grounds close-in fallout. The variability of the concentration of radionuclides in the crab species would result from the variability of the composition and quantity in the diet. However, the decrease in the concentration of radionuclides with sampling depth would depend on the concentration in the seawater and diet.     

Mass distribution and mass transport in the Earth system

Melting of continental ice sheets and glaciers, changes in ocean circulation pattern and in sea level, variations of surface and ground water levels and river discharge, glacial-isostatic adjustment, mantle convection and tectonics, all this causes transport and (re-) distribution of mass inside the Earth and at its surface. Equipped with precise sensor systems, gravity field and altimeter satellites observe these mass-transport processes. During 2006–2012, the German Research Association DFG had established the SPP 1257, ‘Mass distribution and Mass Transport in the Earth System’ as a coordinated research programme to facilitate integrated analysis of these data, to improve our knowledge about several transport processes within the Earth system and to investigate their interactions. This special issue reports about the findings of the first 4 years within the programme.     

Experience of produced water treatment in the North Sea

This paper describes the experience of the Elf company regarding produced water treatment and disposal in the North Sea. It focuses on three fields where difficulties were faced: it evaluates the various treatment techniques used (plate separators, hydrocyclones, vapour stripping units, injection into a disposal well), the reasons for the problems encountered during the life of these fields and the efforts made to obtain a satisfactory quality of the produced water discharged. The contribution of recent or new technologies put on the market is discussed. It shows that, because of the nature of the effluents to be treated, and the fact that produced water characteristics depend largely on upstream treatment and processes, it is still very difficult to anticipate the correct design of an installation or to extrapolate from laboratory tests. For these reasons and others, the improvement of performance requires extensive effort by operators, process and design engineers in order to improve the quality of effluent discharged. Finally, it expounds the limits of the efforts made by industry to reduce the quantity of hydrocarbons released into the sea or to comply with present regulations. It emphasizes that not only costs are to be taken into account but also the adverse consequences of a further reduction of the limit for discharges, if this should happen. Such a measure would to the use of techniques which, in many cases, would increase the total impact of the produced water treatment and the human risk.