Evaluation of twentieth-century Atlantic Warm Pool simulations in historical CMIP5 runs

State-of-the-art coupled global climate models are evaluated for their simulation of the Atlantic Warm Pool (AWP). Historical runs from 17 coupled climate models included in the Fifth Phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) serve as the basis for this model evaluation study. The model simulations are directly compared to observations and reanalysis data to evaluate the climatological features and variability of the AWP within each individual model. Results reveal that a select number of models—namely the GISS-E2-R, CSIRO-Mk3.6, and MPI-ESM-LR—are successful at resolving an appropriately sized AWP with some reasonable climatological features. However, these three models exhibit an erroneously broad seasonal peak of the AWP, and its variability is significantly underestimated. Furthermore, all of the CMIP5 models exhibit a significant cold bias across the tropical Atlantic basin, which hinders their ability to accurately resolve the AWP.     

Long-term surface air temperature trend and the possible impact on historical warming in CMIP5 models

模式对历史气候变化的模拟往往延用工业革命前控制试验(PICTL)的物理过程及设置,同时使用PICTL的模拟结果作为初值。因此,控制试验(PICTL)中是否存在气候漂移将直接影响模式对全球变暖的模拟。本文评估了27个CMIP5模式模拟的气温长期漂移趋势及其对全球变暖模拟的影响。结果表明,大部分模式模拟的全球平均气温的长期漂移趋势都很小(0.06°C/100 a),但个别模式对于全球变暖的模拟存在较大影响。在50°S~65°S纬度带内的南大洋,40°N以北的北大西洋和北太平洋区域,大部分模式模拟的气温漂移趋势对局地变暖的模拟影响较大(10%~20%)。大气层顶向上长波辐射和向上短波辐射共同影响全球气温的长期变化。另外,积分时间越长,中高纬深层海洋得到有效调整,气温的长期漂移趋势越小。本文量化了气候漂移,检验了模式的稳定性,这有助于评估模式对全球变暖的模拟能力。     

CMIP6与CMIP5对历史大气层顶和地表辐射收支模拟的时空对比

基于云和地球辐射能量系统观测数据集（CERES),对比分析了耦合模式比较计划第五（CMIP5）和第六阶段（CMIP6）模拟的历史大气层顶和地表辐射收支的年际变化和空间分布,明确了多模式间不确定性大的关键区域。结果表明：在年际尺度上,除地表向上长波辐射外,CMIP6的辐射分量的集合均值较CMIP5更接近于CERES观测值,全球地表向下短波辐射的高估和大气逆辐射的低估在CMIP6中分别降低了1.9 W/m²和3.3 W/m²。除大气逆辐射外,CMIP6的辐射分量在多模式间的一致性较CMIP5提高。在北极,CMIP6对大气层顶反射短波、大气层顶出射长波和地表向下短波辐射的模拟偏差较CMIP5大。在南北纬60°,CMIP6对大气逆辐射的模拟偏差较CMIP5大。其他区域CMIP6的辐射分量更接近CERES观测值。CMIP6模拟的地表向下短波辐射和大气逆辐射的不确定性较大区域面积较CMIP5减小,但不确定性极大区域面积无变化。地表净辐射的不确定性空间分布在两代CMIP间变化甚小。青藏高原、赤道太平洋、热带雨林、阿拉伯半岛和南极洲沿海依然是地球系统模式模拟辐射收支不确定性极大的关键区域。     

Multi-criterion model ensemble of CMIP5 surface air temperature over China

Theoretical and Applied Climatology - The global circulation models (GCMs) are useful tools for simulating climate change, projecting future temperature changes, and therefore, supporting the...     

基于CMIP5多模式回报资料的地面气温超级集合研究

利用CMIP5的15个全球气候系统模式对东亚及周边地区(70~150°E,0°~60°N)地面气温的回报结果进行超级集合(简称SUP)试验,以欧洲中期天气预报中心ERA逐月气温资料作为观测值,并采用均方根误差(RMSE)、距平相关系数(ACC)、绝对误差(MAE)对多模式集合平均(EMN)以及超级集合(SUP)的回报结果进行检验和评估。结果表明,超级集合回报结果一定程度上取决于训练期的长度。随训练期长度的增加,距平相关系数呈增大的趋势,均方根误差呈减小的趋势,但训练期达到一定长度后,误差不再有明显的减小,甚至出现误差增长。15个全球气候系统模式对东亚及周边地区的地面气温具有一定的回报能力,可以较好地回报出地面气温的年际变化和空间分布,海洋上回报的均方根误差小于陆地。但不同模式回报的结果不尽相同,在单模式中CCSM4对地面气温的回报效果最好。多模式集成的回报效果优于单模式的回报效果,SUP的回报效果优于EMN,其区域平均的均方根误差比多模式集合平均小0.43℃,超级集合极大地改善了地面气温的回报效果。     

An investigation of the relationship between sub‐Saharan rainfall and global sea surface temperatures

Abstract

The relationship between sea surface temperature (SST) and rainfall index anomalies over sub‐Saharan Africa for the 15‐year period, 1970–84, has been examined. The objectively analysed monthly mean SST data were used for the global oceans between 40°S and 60°N. The rainfall data consist of annual mean rainfall indices for the Sahel and Soudan belts over north Africa.

An Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis of the SST data has been carried out for the Atlantic, Indian and global ocean regions. The results show that the most dominant eigenmode, EOF1, is characterized by warming over the central eastern Pacific, cooling over the eastern mid‐latitude Pacific and warming over the entire Atlantic and Indian ocean basins. The second EOF for the Atlantic Ocean SST analysis shows a dipole (north‐south see‐saw) pattern. The third EOF for the Atlantic SST analysis has the same sign over the entire Atlantic basin. Global SST EOF2 and EOF3 correspondió Atlantic SST EOF3 and EOF2, respectively.

The correlation between the sub‐Saharan annual rainfall index, which mainly represents the summer season rainfall from June to September, and SST EOFs shows that EOF1 has statistically significant monthly correlations for the Sahel and Soudan regions and that the warm El Niño‐like phases of SST EOF1 correspond to drought conditions. This result suggests that the large‐scale SST anomalies may be responsible for a significant component of the observed vacillation of sub‐Saharan rainfall. Some preliminary GLA GCM simulation results that support the above findings are also presented.     

南大洋淡水强迫对南半球环状模的影响分析

南半球环状模是南半球热带外大气环流变异的主导模态,对南半球海洋—大气—海冰耦合系统有重要的影响。冰川融化激发的淡水强迫是南大洋的一种重要外强迫。在历史气候记录中,南大洋淡水通量异常曾引发数次全球性气候异常事件。基于海—气完全耦合模式FOAM,在60°S以南的海洋中施加强度为1.0 Sv的理想化淡水通量异常,分析南半球环状模的响应。结果表明：南大洋淡水通量异常可使局地西风增强,且西风的增强在垂向各个层次上均有体现。西风强度的变化导致对流层中大气斜压性增强,平流层中大气斜压性减弱。此外,淡水强迫使环状模的年际变率振幅显著减弱,而年代际变率开始增强,谱能量的变化具有垂向一致性。海温和海冰等外强迫因子的变化对环状模年代际振幅的增强具有重要意义。     

An Analysis of Historical and Future Temperature Fluctuations over China Based on CMIP5 Simulations简

The trends and fluctuations of observed and CMIP5-simulated yearly mean surface air temperature over China were analyzed.In general,the historical simulations replicate the observed increase of temperature,but the multi-model ensemble （MME） mean does not accurately reproduce the drastic interannual fluctuations.The correlation coefficient of the MME mean with the observations over all runs and all models was 0.77,which was larger than the largest value （0.65） from any single model ensemble.The results showed that winter temperatures are increasing at a higher rate than summer temperatures,and that winter temperatures exhibit stronger interannual variations.It was also found that the models underestimate the differences between winter and summer rates.The ensemble empirical mode decomposition technique was used to obtain six intrinsic mode functions （IMFs） for the modeled temperature and observations.The periods of the first two IMFs of the MME mean were 3.2 and 7.2,which represented the cycle of 2-7-yr oscillations.The periods of the third and fourth IMFs were 14.7 and 35.2,which reflected a multi-decadal oscillation of climate change.The corresponding periods of the first four IMFs were 2.69,7.24,16.15 and 52.5 in the observed data.The models overestimate the period of low frequency oscillation of temperature,but underestimate the period of high frequency variation.The warming rates from different representative concentration pathways （RCPs） were calculated,and the results showed that the temperature will increase by approximately 0.9℃,2.4℃,3.2℃ and 6.1℃ in the next century under the RCP2.6,RCP4.5,RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 scenarios,respectively.     

Precipitation-surface temperature relationship in the IPCC CMIP5 models

Precipitation and surface temperature are two important quantities whose variations are closely related through various physical processes. In the present study, we evaluated the precipitation-surface temperature (P-T) relationship in 17 climate models involved in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) for the IPCC Assessment Report version 5. Most models performed reasonably well at simulating the large-scale features of the P-T correlation distribution. Based on the pattern correlation of the P-T correlation distribution, the models performed better in November-December-January-February-March (NDJFM) than in May-June-July-August-September (MJJAS) except for the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, and the performance was generally better over the land than over the ocean. Seasonal dependence was more obvious over the land than over the ocean and was more obvious over the mid- and high-latitudes than over the tropics. All of the models appear to have had difficulty capturing the P-T correlation distribution over the mid-latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere in MJJAS. The spatial variability of the P-T correlation in the models was overestimated compared to observations. This overestimation tended to be larger over the land than over the ocean and larger over the mid- and high-latitudes than over the tropics. Based on analyses of selected model ensemble simulations, the spread of the P-T correlation among the ensemble members appears to have been small. While the performance in the P-T correlation provides a general direction for future improvement of climate models, the specific reasons for the discrepancies between models and observations remain to be revealed with detailed and comprehensive evaluations in various aspects.     

CMIP5 model simulations of warm Arctic-cold Eurasia pattern in winter surface air temperature anomalies

Climate Dynamics - The second empirical orthogonal function mode (EOF2) of winter surface air temperature (SAT) over 0°–180° E, 40°–90° N during 1979–2005 is...     

Influence of sea surface temperatures on air temperatures in the tropics

Interannual variations of tropical tropospheric temperatures are closely related to sea surface temperature (SST) changes in the tropical eastern Pacific (TEP). This study investigated the physical mechanisms for such an air-sea interrelationship. SSTs and latent heat flux were analyzed to find the unique properties of their variations during El Niño. A Gill-type model was used to investigate how a local heat source communicates with the entire tropics. Radiative fluxes in the tropics were evaluated to search for the factors limiting air temperature increases when warm SSTs remain in the TEP. We found that interannual variabilities of SST and latent heat flux are dominated by the variations in the TEP region. The SST variations there have three unique properties that allow the ocean to influence the atmosphere effectively: large magnitude, long persistence, and spatial coherence. The Gill-type model shows that a local heat source can warm the entire tropical troposphere when the heat source is near the equator. Released latent heat in the heat source region and forced adiabatic subsidence elsewhere in the tropics warm the atmosphere. As a result, a local heat source warms the entire tropical strip. The forced subsidence depresses clouds, allowing more infrared radiation to leave the atmosphere and preventing further atmospheric warming when warm SSTs remain in the TEP. This finding is verified by reanalysis data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction.     

Dynamical downscaling of IPSL-CM5 CMIP5 historical simulations over the Mediterranean: benefits on the representation of regional surface winds and cyclogenesis

The Mediterranean region is identified as one of the two main hot-spots of climate change and also known to have the highest concentration of cyclones in the world. These atmospheric features contribute significantly to the regional climate but they are not reproduced by the Atmosphere–Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCM), due to their coarse horizontal resolution, which have recently been run in the frame of the 5th Climate Model Intercomparison Project. This article investigates the benefit of dynamically downscaling the Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL) AOGCM (IPSL-CM5) historical simulation by the weather and research forecasting (WRF) for the representation of the Mediterranean surface winds and cyclonic activity. Indeed, when considering IPSL-CM5 atmospheric fields, the dramatic underestimation of the cyclonic activity in the most cyclogenetic region of the world jeopardizes our ability to investigate in-depth the Mediterranean regional climate and trend in the context of global change. The WRF model shows remarkable skill to reproduce regional cyclogenesis. Indeed, cyclones occurrence is quasi-absent in IPSL-CM5 data but when applying dynamical downscaling their spatial–temporal variability is very close to the re-analysis. This is a clear benefit of dynamical downscaling in regions of strong topographic forcing. This “steady” source of forcing allows the production of lee cyclogenesis and the development of strong cyclones, whatever the quality of the large-scale circulation provided at the WRF’s boundaries by IPSL-CM5. However, dynamical downscaling still presents disadvantages as for instance the fact that large-scale inaccurate features of the IPSL-CM5 regional circulation are replicated by WRF due to the boundary controlled (small domain) simulation. The advantages and disadvantages of dynamical downscaling are thoroughly discussed in this paper revealing its importance for climate research, especially in the context of future scenarios and wind impacts.     

Changes in the Walker and Hadley circulations associated with the Southern Annular Mode

Extratropical impacts on tropical climates are one of the most exciting areas of meteorological investigation in recent times. The present study elucidates the seasonal impact of the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) on predominant tropical circulations such as Hadley and Walker. The velocity potential at 200 hPa is used to understand the spatio-temporal variability in tropical circulations in the boreal summer and winter seasons. The results show an intensification of seasonal velocity potential in the composite of the low phase of the SAM. The seasonal climatological values of velocity potential observed for the period from 1979 to 2012 are of lesser magnitudes than earlier findings. The convergence/divergence locations of tropical circulation have shifted from their mean positions in the alternative phase of the SAM. The low-level convergence in the southern hemispheric Hadley circulation (HC) is enhanced in the composite of the positive phase of the SAM; however, the SAM’s effect on the HC is no stronger in the summer. Another interesting feature noted in the present study is the weakening of the Walker circulation associated with the positive phase of the SAM, which can influence the basic state of the tropical Pacific Ocean. The SAM’s interannual variability exhibits a significant positive trend in winter. The study reveals that the positive phase of the SAM could be a possible explanation for the recent changes in the tropical circulation patterns; however, the variability in tropical circulation anomalies associated with the SAM should be noted on seasonal and monthly scales to understand the dynamical mechanism behind the relationship. The impact of the SAM on tropical circulation may continue in future decades, as this southern extratropical vacillation is predicted to remain in a positive phase due to the increase in greenhouse gases and the variability in ozone.     

CMIP5多模式对东亚地区地面气温年际变率的回报研究

对CMIP5全球气候模式中年代际回报试验的气温资料及其简单集合平均(Multi-model ensemble mean,EMN)和贝叶斯模式平均的结果(Bayesian Model Averaging,BMA)进行经验正交函数(Empirical Orthogonal Function,EOF)分解和Morlet小波分析,检验评估各个模式及其EMN和BMA对东亚地面气温的方差、气温时空分布特征及周期变化的回报能力。结果表明,10个模式、EMN、BMA都能很好地回报出1981—2010年东亚地面气温的方差分布,其中BMA回报效果最好。EOF分析表明,BMA能较好地回报出东亚地面气温第一模态的时空分布。MIROC5能较好地回报出第二模态的趋势变化,但却不能回报出气温的年际变率。绝大多数模式和EMN、BMA虽然能回报出东亚地面气温的变化趋势,但是对气温年际变率的回报仍然是比较困难的。CMCC-CM对气温变化主模态的3~5 a的周期变化特征回报效果最好,和NCEP资料的结果最为接近。     

Evaluation of the performance of CMIP5 and CMIP6 models in simulating the South Pacific Quadrupole-ENSO relationship

先前的观测研究表明,南太平洋四极子海温模态(SPQ)可以有效地作为ENSO的前兆信号.本文利用20个CMIP6模式及其对应的20个先前的CMIP5模式的工业化前气候模拟试验数据,评估和比较了CMIP6以及CMIP5模式对SPQ与ENSO的关系的模拟能力.结果表明,大多数CMIP5和CMIP6模式可以合理地模拟SPQ的基...     

南半球环状模事件的准地转调整过程分析

本文利用NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料,分析了南半球环状模（SAM）事件生命过程中的准地转调整过程.由于SAM沿纬圈的水平尺度远远大于临界尺度罗斯贝变形半径,因此要求纬向风场在地转调整过程向气压场适应以达到地转平衡.研究结果表明,在纬向平均环流中,异常Ferrel环流强度的变化超前于SAM强度变化约2/16位相,异常Ferrel环流能够通过超前的整层大气质量的经向输运,改变中高纬度的质量分布装状况,导致中、高纬度地区间的位势高度梯度异常变化,而中、高纬度地区间的位势高度梯度异常发生变化就意味着SAM强度和位相发生变化;而当SAM强度和位相发生改变后,即中、高纬度地区南北方向上的位势高度梯度发生变化后,可破坏中纬度地区纬向风场与位势高度场之间的地转平衡,产生地转偏差;地转偏差产生后,又可驱动经向散度风场,造成Ferrel环流异常的变化,由此形成一个自我内部循环调整过程.     

The Springtime North Asia Cyclone Activity Index and the Southern Annular Mode

The relationship between the North Asia cyclone （NAC） activity and the Southern Annular Mode （SAM） is documented in this research. The definition of the NAC index （NACI） is based on the atmospheric relative vorticity in North Asia. The analysis yields a significant positive correlation between previous winter Southern Annular Mode index （SAMI） and spring NACI in the interannual variability, with a correlation coefficient of 0.51 during 1948-2000. Analysis of the NAC-related and SAM-related atmospheric general circulation variability demonstrates such a relationship. The study further reveals that when the winter SAM becomes strong, the springtime atmospheric convection in tropical western Pacific will intensify and the local Hadley circulation will be strengthened. As a result, the abnormal subsiding motion over South China makes the temperature gradient intensified in the low level and strengthens the jet in the high level, both of which are beneficial to the development of NAC activity.     

The relationship between winter minimum temperatures and spring phenology in a Southern Appalachian Cove

Summary Winter minimum temperatures were recorded at four sites in Station Cove, a forested flat-bottomed ravine in the southern Appalachians of South Carolina, U.S.A. Unlike minimum temperatures found in frost hollows, cove minima were warmer than those found outside of the cove. Within the cove, minimum temperatures at study sites in the narrow, gorge-like western portion near a 20 m high cascade were warmer than those in the broader, eastern portion. Additionally, minimum temperatures near the ground were warmer than those at 1.4 m height above the surface. Selected spring-flowering plant species bloomed earlier in the western portion of the cove, while for the same plant species, within cove flowering dates were 2 to 3 weeks earlier than those outside of the cove. Station Cove, therefore, appears to harbor a microclimate that allows for much earlier flowering and leafing out of plant species in spring than does the surrounding region.

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Der Zusammenhang zwischen Winter-Minimumtemperaturen und Frühlingsphänologie in einem Tal der südlichen Appalachen

Zusammenfassung Winter-Minimumtemperaturen wurden an vier Meßstellen in Station Cove, einer bewaldeten Schlucht mit flachem Boden in den südlichen Appalachen von South Carolina, U.S.A., registriert. Im Gegensatz zu den Minimumtemperaturen, die in Frostlöchern auftreten, waren die Talschluchtminima wärmer als die außerhalb der Schlucht gemessenen. Innerhalb des Tales waren die Minimumtemperaturen im schluchtartigen, westlichen Ende in der Nähe eines 20 m hohen Wasserfalls wärmer als die im breiteren, östlichen Teil des Tales. Außerdem waren die Minimumtemperaturen in Bodennähe wärmer als die in 1,4 m Höhe gemessenen. Einige Arten von Frühlingsblumen blühten im westlichen Teil der Talschlucht früher als im östlichen Teil. Dieselben Arten blühten in der Schlucht 2 bis 3 Wochen früher als außerhalb der Schlucht. Station Cove ist daher durch ein Mikroklima charakterisiert, das im Vergleich zum umliegenden Terrain ein früheres Austreiben und Blühen der Pflanzen im Frühling erlaubt.

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