Effect of Soil Parameters on Dynamic Cone Penetration Indices of Laterite Sub-grade Soils from India

The focus of this study was on correlating the effect of grain-size, maximum dry-density (MDD), field moisture content, and the void ratios on penetration measured using the dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) for laterite soils blended with fines. Tests were performed on soil samples compacted to MDD for moulding water contents set to the optimum moisture content (OMC), dry of OMC, and wet of OMC un-soaked condition. The results indicated that an increase in the fines-content caused a decrease in the MDD, and an increase in the OMC and the DCP penetration. Regressions were developed correlating various parameters.     

Artificial Neural Network Prediction Models for Soil Compaction and Permeability

This paper presents Artificial Neural Network (ANN) prediction models which relate permeability, maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content with classification properties of the soils. The ANN prediction models were developed from the results of classification, compaction and permeability tests, and statistical analyses. The test soils were prepared from four soil components, namely, bentonite, limestone dust, sand and gravel. These four components were blended in different proportions to form 55 different mixes. The standard Proctor compaction tests were adopted, and both the falling and constant head test methods were used in the permeability tests. The permeability, MDD and optimum moisture content (OMC) data were trained with the soil’s classification properties by using an available ANN software package. Three sets of ANN prediction models are developed, one each for the MDD, OMC and permeability (PMC). A combined ANN model is also developed to predict the values of MDD, OMC, and PMC. A comparison with the test data indicates that predictions within 95% confidence interval can be obtained from the ANN models developed. Practical applications of these prediction models and the necessary precautions for using these models are discussed in detail in this paper.     

Influence of gravelly exclusion on compaction of lateritic soils

This paper uses a deltaic lateritic soil sample to study the combined influence of total gravel composition and gravelly exclusion on compaction parameters MDD (or maximum dry density) and OMC (or optimum moisture content) derived from standard laboratory compaction tests. In the end, MDD was found to vary polynomially with percentage of gravelly exclusion with improved or higher values as total gravel composition increases. OMC on the other hand was found to decrease continually with increasing gravelly exclusion but independent of the total gravel composition. Also, a model was presented in form of a family of curves to predict actual or field compaction parameters (which is devoid of gravelly exclusion) and their laboratory counterparts. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Evaluation of Strength Characteristics of Tropical Black Clay Treated with Locust Bean Waste Ash

An expansive tropical black clay (also known as black cotton soil because the cotton plant thrives well on it) was treated with up to 15 % locust bean waste ash (LBWA) to assess its soil improvement potential. Samples were subjected to index, compaction using three energy levels (British Standard light, BSL, West African Standard, WAS or ‘Intermediate’ and British Standard heavy, BSH), shear strength (unconfined compressive strength, UCS), California bearing ratio, CBR and durability tests. Results obtained show that the natural soil is not suitable for road construction. The maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) decreased and increased, respectively. Regardless of the compactive effort and curing period, strength and durability properties increased with higher LBWA content with the BSL effort recording the best improvement. However, based on durability results, the optimal 12.5 % LBWA treatment of black cotton soil did not satisfy criteria for its use in road construction as a stand alone additive. Also, significant improvement in soil properties was obtained using the BSL compactive effort, which is easily achieved in the field. The benefits of the application include reduction in the cost of soil improvement and the adverse environmental impact of locust bean waste.     

Artificial Neural Networks: A Solution to the Ambiguity in Prediction of Engineering Properties of Fine-Grained Soils

Determination of soaked california bearing ratio (CBR) and compaction characteristics of soils in the laboratory require considerable time and effort. To make a preliminary assessment of the suitability of soils required for a project, prediction models for these engineering properties on the basis of laboratory tests—which are quick to perform, less time consuming and cheap—such as the tests for index properties of soils, are preferable. Nevertheless researchers hold divergent views regarding the most influential parameters to be taken into account for prediction of soaked CBR and compaction characteristics of fine-grained soils. This could be due to the complex behaviour of soils—which, by their very nature, exhibit extreme variability. However this disagreement is a matter of concern as it affects the dependability of prediction models. This study therefore analyses the ability of artificial neural networks and multiple regression to handle different influential parameters simultaneously so as to make accurate predictions on soaked CBR and compaction characteristics of fine-grained soils. The results of simple regression analyses included in this study indicate that optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) of fine-grained soils bear better correlation with soaked CBR of fine-grained soils than plastic limit and liquid limit. Simple regression analyses also indicate that plastic limit has stronger correlation with compaction characteristics of fine-grained soils than liquid limit. On the basis of these correlations obtained using simple regression analyses, neural network prediction models and multiple regression prediction models—with varying number of input parameters are developed. The results reveal that neural network models have more ability to utilize relatively less influential parameters than multiple regression models. The study establishes that in the case of neural network models, the relatively less powerful parameters—liquid limit and plastic limit can also be used effectively along with MDD and OMC for better prediction of soaked CBR of fine-grained soils. Also with the inclusion of less significant parameter—liquid limit along with plastic limit the predictions on compaction characteristics of fine-grained soils using neural network analysis improves considerably. Thus in the case of neural network analysis, the use of relatively less influential input parameters along with stronger parameters is definitely beneficial, unlike conventional statistical methods—for which, the consequence of this approach is unpredictable—giving sometimes not so favourable results. Very weak input parameters alone need to be avoided for neural network analysis. Consequently, when there is ambiguity regarding the most influential input parameters, neural network analysis is quite useful as all such influential parameters can be taken to consideration simultaneously, which will only improve the performance of neural network models. As soils by their very nature, exhibit extreme complexity, it is necessary to include maximum number of influential parameters—as can be determined easily using simple laboratory tests—in the prediction models for soil properties, so as to improve the reliability of these models—for which, use of neural networks is more desirable.     

Assessing Stabilization Effectiveness of Combined Cement Kiln Dust and Quarry Fines on Pavement Subgrades Dominated by Black Cotton Soil

In developing technically viable and economically sustainable methods of improving soil properties to suit the requirements of engineering structures, designers/engineers are to take into consideration the availability and cost effectiveness of materials required for such improvement scheme. In line with this, the present study evaluates stabilization effectiveness of combined quarry fines (QF) and cement kiln dust (CKD) on subgrades dominated by black cotton soil (BC soil). The experimental programme included Atterberg limits, compaction and California bearing ratio (CBR) tests on soil mixtures prepared with a representative BC soil at constant dosage of 10 % QF and 0, 4, 8, 12 and 16 % CKD. Prior to testing, soil mixtures for CBR test prepared at optimum moistures and compacted with British standard light compaction effort were soaked for 96 h after curing for 28 days. Test data show that the addition of QF and CKD together reduced the plasticity index that resulted in rapid textural changes and eventual improvement in constructability, led to an increase in the optimum moisture content and a decrease in the maximum dry unit weight. Furthermore, the coupled effects of QF and CKD resulted in substantial increase in CBR strength of the composite specimens. Overall, mixtures created using the proposed QF and CKD ratios rendered the soil physically and mechanically stable producing results that are compatible with desired values for engineering performance typically required by various user agencies for pavement subgrades. This improvement scheme is not only cost effective, but it is capable of lessening the demand on non renewable resources thereby reducing the footprint of road construction projects in the environment.     

Effect of Fly Ash and Rice Husk Ash on Index and Engineering Properties of Expansive Clays

Many innovative ameliorating techniques including chemical stabilization have been in practice for improving the behaviour of problematic, highly expansive clays. This paper presents a comparative study on the effect of fly ash (FA) and rice husk ash (RHA) on index and engineering properties of an expansive clay. Liquid limit (LL), plastic limit, plasticity index (PI) and free swell index (FSI), and coefficient of permeability (k), unconfined compressive strength and swelling pressure were determined at varying quantities of FA and RHA. Coefficient of permeability, swelling pressure and unconfined compressive strength of the FA-clay and the RHA-clay blends were determined at their respective OMC and MDD obtained from Proctor compaction tests. LL, PI and FSI decreased significantly with increasing FA and RHA contents. Coefficient of permeability, however, increased with additive content. Further, swelling pressure of the blends decreased with increasing additive content.     

Engineering Properties of Cement Kiln Dust-Modified Soils in Western Washington State

The Portland cement manufacturing process produces considerable amount of cement kiln dust (CKD). While many facilities are able to reuse a significant portion of CKD in their production lines, a large percentage is removed as industrial waste and placed in landfills. Because of the large amount of material potentially available for use, and in an effort to cut disposal costs, alternative and beneficial uses for CKD need to be investigated. This study presents experimental results of the use of CKD in modification and stabilization of soils from the Aberdeen and Everett areas in the state of Washington. These soils are typically wet of the optimum water content and pose problems during geotechnical construction. CKD was added in percentages of 5, 10, 15, and 20% by dry weight of the soils. Laboratory tests, including drying rate of the soils, Atterberg limits, standard proctor and unconfined compressive strength were conducted. Results of the investigation showed significant improvement in drying rate and unconfined compressive strength of the CKD treated specimens as the percentage of CKD increased. It was also found that lower percentages of CKD can be used for modification purposes, whereas higher percentages of CKD can be used for both modification and stabilization purposes in geotechnical construction.     

Evaluation of the bearing capacity of near-surface soils using integrated methods: A case study of Otukpa,Ogbadibo Lga,Benue state,North-Central Nigeria

The load bearing capacity of soils in Otukpa area of Benue state, Nigeria was evaluated by characterizing the geotechnical, geophysical and structural properties of the soil. The evaluation was necessary because aside the area holding good prospect for future increase in human population, sparsely distributed low-weight buildings in the area have cracks and other signs of failure. Remote sensing/GIS, geophysical and geotechnical approaches were integrated to achieve the objective. 2-D tomography and processed remotely sensed data confirmed the presence of areas of strength especially to the north. Stratigraphy of the northern portion consist of four layers; loose top soil (0-0.26m), compact clayey sand (0.26m-3.33m), dry clayey sand (3.33m-74.21m) and saturated clayey sands (74.21m-201.58m) While the stratigraphy in the south is slightly different; compact topsoil (0-1.2m), loose sand (1.2m-10.81m), compact sand (10.82m-19.71m) and compact clay sand (19.71m-56.03m). The plastic limit range from 11-17% with average specific gravity of 2.64g/cm³. Permeability ranges from 7.8×10^-6m/sec to 3.36×10^-4m/sec while volume compressibility under 250kN ranges from 7.27×10^-5m²/kN to 1.3×10^-4m²/kN and the rate of consolidation under 250kN is within 12.43 m²/year to 1.33m²/year. MDD peaks at 1.85g/cm³ at an OMC of 12.11% and is lowest at 1.67g/cm³ at an OMC of 11.99%. UCS ranges from 31-45kN/m² while shear strength is between 258.81kN/m² to 338 kN/m². Due to the variability of engineering properties of soils, the southern part of the area is preferred for locating the buildings. Generally, careful foundation design in the area is necessary.     

Stabilization of Expansive Soil with Cement Kiln Dust and RBI Grade 81 at Subgrade Level

The present research work deals with an expansive high plastic clayey soil with cement kiln dust (CKD) and stabilizer (RBI Grade 81). The physical and engineering properties of soil are plasticity, compaction, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), consolidation and California bearing ratio (CBR) of the clayey soil and clay treated with CKD and stabilizer were determined. Soil chemistry was examined before and after treatment using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and elemental dispersive spectrometer. The clay mixed with CKD, CKD and RBI Grade 81 was found that optimum contents are 10 % (CKD), 15 % CKD with 4 % RBI Grade 81, respectively. The result indicates that CKD alone will decrease maximum dry density and increase optimum moisture content. CKD with RBI Grade 81 slightly increases maximum dry density and decreases optimum moisture content. UCS increased with CKD alone and CKD with RBI Grade 81 from 88.3 to 976 kN/m², respectively. CBR values were increased by the addition of CKD, CKD with RBI Grade 81 from 1.65 to 21.7 %. With the curing time of 3, 14 and 28 days, UCS and CBR values were increased due to pozzolanic reaction from cementations material. The treated soil has considerable reduction in compression index. SEM images clearly indicate the formation of CSH and CAH gel.     

Investigation on Soil–Water Characteristic Curves of Untreated and Stabilized Highly Clayey Expansive Soils

The examination of hydromechanical behavior of expansive soil lies mostly within the unsaturated soil mechanics framework, which renders the study of its soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) a necessity. This paper evaluates the correlations of two physicochemical properties, pH and surface conductance, with the behavior of the SWCCs of four natural expansive soils and four stabilized soils. The effects of chemical stabilization and curing time on the SWCCs are also analyzed. The SWCCs and the corresponding parameters were obtained from pressure plate tests and a fitting model. It was found that pH and surface conductance together showed a good correlation with the air-entry related parameter, α, because they determine the formation of the diffuse double layer around fine particles or aggregates. The macroscopic behavior, in terms of unconfined compressive strength, free swell and swell pressure at optimum moisture content (OMC), was also evaluated and good correlations of these property values with the matric suction values at OMC were observed for the four natural untreated soils, while no correlation existed for the stabilized soils. The results and the discussion provide new insight to address physicochemical mechanisms that determine the macroscopic behavior of expansive soil.     

Experimental research on expansion characteristics of Mengzi expansive soil with water,salt and acid immersion

Swelling tests of Mengzi remolded expansive soil inundated with different types of wetting fluids (distilled water, saline water and acidic water) were carried out using advanced consolidometer. Swelling characteristics of expansive soil under different initial conditions were studied. The dose–response model was used to fit the rules of swelling time interval for expansive soil with water immersion. The quantitative relationships between the swelling deformation and initial conditions (initial water content, initial dry density and overburden pressure) were attained using 3D regression analyses. The differences in deformation rules of expansive soil with water immersion in each region are bigger for the differences of genetic types, mineral compositions, chemical characteristics of soils and sample preparation techniques and instrument error. The expansion deformation rules of soil immersed in salt and acid solution are the same as the rules of soaked soil. The important indices obtained can be provided to the engineering design, construction and stability evaluation of expansive soil slopes.     

青藏直流输电线路冻土长期抗剪强度预测及影响因素分析

冻土是指0℃以下,含有冰的各种岩石和土壤,由于其复杂的物理力学特性,给青藏直流联网工程的施工和设计带来了很多难题。工程沿线冻土的长期抗剪强度,更是由于土质、含冰量以及密实度分布的复杂特性,影响了其在使用寿命内的安全运营和稳定性。为解决这一工程难题,室内制备重塑试样并在-2℃的温度下对3种土质类型（粉质黏土、粉砂和细砂）、3种含冰量（饱冰、富冰和多冰）的密实和松散冻土进行直剪快剪的蠕变试验,得到了不同土质、含冰量以及密实度类型的冻土剪切蠕变特性,并分析和预测了长期抗剪强度的变化规律和影响因素,结果表明:（1）短时间内冻土承受荷载的能力随含冰量的增加而增大;随着加载时间的延长,冰的流变特性表现出来,使冻土的蠕变变形加大,冻土的强度降低;（2）密实度越大、含冰量越大的冻土,初期强度越高;随着时间的增加,强度开始衰减,且含冰量越大,密实度越小的冻土衰减速度越快;（3）长期强度的变化规律不受土质的影响,说明在工程施工阶段,若单纯考虑长期强度时,只要不同土质冻土保持冻结状态,可同一对待和处理。以上结论为输电线路冻土基础设计、施工和安全运营提供了一定的理论基础,也为在青藏地区开展的其他工程活动提供了可借鉴的试验数据和资料。     

A Solution to the Problem of Predicting the Suitability of Silty–clayey Materials for Cement-stabilization

Major geotechnical problems in construction involving silty–clayey soils are due to their low strength, durability and high compressibility of soft soils, and the swell–shrink nature of the overconsolidated swelling soils. Confronted with these problems, a suitable ground improvement technique is needed, for deep excavations in soft clays, for stability, durability and deformation control. Cement-stabilization is one of the alternatives. An increase in strength and durability, reduction in deformability are the main aims of this method. Conventional cement-stabilization methods are used mainly for surface treatment. However, the use of cement has recently been extended to a greater depth in which cement columns were installed to act as a type of soil reinforcement (deep cement–soil mixing and cement jet grouting). In situ engineering properties of these silty–clayey soils are often variable and difficult to predict. For this reason cement-stabilization methods have a basic target to control the aforementioned engineering properties of these clays so that the properties of a silty–clayey soil become more like the properties of a soft rock such as clayey shale or lightly cemented sandstone. So cement-stabilization of these soils is essential to control their engineering properties and to predict their engineering behaviour for construction. In an effort to predict, classify and study the suitability of silty–clayey soils for cement-stabilization both slaking and unconfined compressive strength tests were carried out on clayey–sand mixtures consisted of two types of clays, kaolin and bentonite. Finally diagrams were prepared to study the variation of slaking and strength due to compaction, curing time and cement percentage and also to predict areas of efficient cement-stabilization.     

Effect of Biochar Produced from Mesquite on the Compaction Characteristics and Shear Strength of a Clayey Sand

Biochar is a carbon-rich and low microbial degrading material obtained after pyrolysis of biomass in the absence or limited content of oxygen. The impact of biochar on hydraulic properties of soil is extensively studied in agricultural and geotechnical or geoenvironmental engineering for potential application in bioengineered structures. While a little study is conducted to assess its effect on soil mechanical properties, especially shear strength. However, the effect of biochar on the combined shear strength and compaction characteristics of soil is not studied. The shear strength of biochar amended soil is thought to be related to the compaction characteristics. In addition, the effect of biochar on the shear strength of the soil is soil and biochar specific. In this study, an attempt was made to investigate and better understand the effect of biochar on the shear strength and compaction characteristics of a clayey sand for potential application in bioengineered structures. Standard proctor, direct shear and unconfined compression tests were conducted on bare soil and soil amended with 5, 10 and 15% (w/w) biochar. The experimental results revealed that the amendment of biochar from 5 to 15% (w/w) decreased the dry density and increased the shear strength parameters such as cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction (ϕ) of the soil. While it decreased the undrained shear strength (c_u) at higher compaction density (> 0.95MDD) and increased at lower compaction density (< 0.9MDD). Thus, in undrained condition, the initial compaction density has a strong influence on the shear strength of biochar amended soil. In addition, the increased c and ϕ and decreased dry density in biochar amended soil is observed to increase the stability of slopes (hypothetical). The increase of c and ϕ is believed to be due to the roughness and active chemicals (functional groups) present on the surface of the biochar. The decreased c_u at higher density is believed to be due to the lubricating effect by the higher water content.

     

Proposed engineering of gypsiferous soil classification

Proposed engineering of gypsiferous soil classification is given. This classification depends on soil texture, mineralogy, geochemistry and engineering properties. Study areas are located within the Mesopotamian plain and include four locations, namely, Najaf, Karbala, Falluja and Samarra which are located between latitudes 32° and 35° and longitudes 43° and 44° 30??. The study performed includes analyses of soil samples for their mineralogy and physical and engineering properties as well as the chemical analyses of soil water extracts. The results suggest that these soils consist of different percentages of sand, silt, clay and some gravel. Analysis also detected secondary gypsum, quartz, calcite, feldspar, different types of rock fragments and different types of heavy minerals in trace amount. Clay minerals are dominated by palygorskite. Hydrochemical analysis results of soil water extracts show that the calcium and sulphate ions are most common, followed by sodium, bicarbonate, chloride, magnesium and potassium. Bicarbonate and chloride show increased values in Karbala and Najaf areas. The highest gypsum content reached 67.5% in the Samarra area, while the lowest is in Karbala, which reached 28.9%.The physical and engineering properties of the studied soils were determined. Samples which were allowed to soak in water show a sudden drop in unconfined compressive strength, compression and shear values immediately after soaking and then decreased gradually. This classification of gypsiferous soils is composed of two classes: gypsiferous soil and highly gypsiferous soil, according to their gypsum content and initial void ratio, coefficient of curvature, coefficient of uniformity, the collapse potential, the compressive strength, cohesion, plasticity index, content of fines and the total dissolve solids of the soil water extracts. It is believed that this newly proposed classification for gypsiferous soils can be applied to other locations and therefore will be useful for other soil scientists and engineers as well because this classification depends on soil texture, mineralogy, geochemistry and engineering properties, while the other existing classifications deal with only one of these variables.     

Quantifying engineering parameters of expansive soils from their reflectance spectra

Occurrence of expansive soils in construction sites has serious implications on planning, design, construction, maintenance, and overall performance especially of lightweight engineering infrastructures. Such soils are particularly susceptible to large volume changes in response to moisture content fluctuations following seasonal climatic variations. This can lead to deformation of structures built up on them. For this study, soil samples were collected from the eastern part of Addis Ababa. Specific expansive soil engineering parameters namely; Atterberg limits (LL, PL and PI), free swell and cation exchange capacity were measured in a soil mechanics laboratory. Reflectance spectra of each soil sample were acquired in a remote sensing laboratory using ASD fieldspec full range spectrometer. A multivariate calibration method, partial least squares regression (PLSR) analysis, through simple wavelength approach, was used to construct empirical prediction models for estimating engineering parameters of expansive soils from their respective reflectance spectra. Correlation coefficients of 0.90, 0.87, 0.71, 0.81 and 0.71 for CEC, LL, PL, PI and FS respectively were obtained. The correlation coefficients showed that large portion of variations in engineering parameters of expansive soils could be accounted for by spectral parameters. Apart from these high correlation coefficients, small root mean square errors of calibration (RMSEC) and prediction (RMSEP), standard error of calibration (SEC) and prediction (SEP) and minimum bias were obtained. The results indicate potential of spectroscopy in deriving engineering parameters of expansive soils from their respective reflectance spectra and hence, its potential applicability in supporting geotechnical investigations of such soils.     

Potential Application of Lateritic Soil Stabilized with Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) as Liner in Waste Containment Structures

This study evaluates the applicability of residually derived lateritic soil stabilized with cement kiln dust (CKD), a waste product from the cement manufacturing process as liner in waste repositories. Lateritic soil sample mixed with 0–16 % CKD (by dry weight of the soil) was compacted with the British Standard Light, West African Standard and British Standard Heavy compaction efforts at water contents ranging from the dry to wet of optimum moistures. Geotechnical parameters such as Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics, hydraulic conductivity, unconfined compressive strength and volumetric shrinkage strain were determined. Results indicate that the plasticity index, the maximum dry unit weight and hydraulic conductivity together with the volumetric shrinkage decreased with increased amount of CKD while the optimum moisture content and unconfined compressive strength increased with higher CKD content for all the efforts. When measured properties were compared with standard specifications adopted by most environmental regulatory agencies for the construction of barrier systems in waste containment structures, the resulting values showed substantial compliance. Besides developing an economically sustainable liner material, the present study demonstrated effective utilization of an industrial by-product otherwise considered as waste by the producers, in addition to a systematic expansion in the use of the lateritic soil for geotechnical works.     

Mechanical behavior and micro-structure of cement kiln dust-stabilized expensive soil

In this study, the effects of cement kiln dust (CKD) on the swelling properties, strength properties, and microstructures of CKD-stabilized expansive soil were investigated. Samples were prepared and stabilized with different CKD content ratios, ranging from 0 to 18% by dry mass. The results obtained show that the maximum swelling pressures decrease exponentially with increases in CKD content. Both the cohesion and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) increase at ratios below 10% CKD and then decrease slightly, above that ratio. CKD can also improve the strength of saturated, expansive soil. There is no visible change of UCS for soil without CKD when cured, while the UCS of a sample with 10% CKD content after curing for 90 days is higher than that after curing for only 1 day. This indicates that CKD can improve the long-term strength of expansive soil. Finally, microstructure analysis reveals that the addition of CKD reduces the montmorillonite content of expansive soil and decreases its swelling properties. The addition of CKD also changes the pore volume distribution, both the size and amount of macro-pores and micro-pores decrease with increase in CKD content. For saturated samples, the size of macro-pores is obviously reduced, while that of micro-pores is slightly increased for both treated and untreated soils. Hydration and saturation processes make the soil structure become dispersive which results in a lower strength, and adding CKD can restrain this process. The suggested optimal CKD content is between 10 and 14% and with a curing time of more than 27 days.     

The potentials of lime stabilization of lateritic soils

The paper reviews lime stabilization of lateritic soils and shows that all Nigerian lateritic soils from A-1-a soil to A-7-6 soil used in the investigation, improved their engineering characteristics substantially by the addition of lime. The plasticity indices of the soils were reduced whereas the plastic limits increased; the liquid limits increased slightly, the maximum dry density decreased and the optimum moisture content increased. From the results of Durability and CBR tests, only the A-1 soil and A-2 soil have any potential as competent base materials and consequently only these require any further field tests. 6% lime is recommended for these field tests. The other soils that do not qualify for bases may be utilized as sub-base materials.