Interannual variability of dense shelf water salinities in the north-western Barents Sea

The maximum dense shelf water salinity formed during winter in the Svalbard Bank area of the north-western Barents Sea is reconstructed for the period 1952–2000 by analysing the transformation of summer remnants. The variability of 34.7 - 35.4, waters being at the freezing point, is mainly generated by interannual variations in the near surface salinity. On interannual time scales the latter is strongly linked to the sea ice import. In contrast, no correlation of the salinity of the Atlantic Water (AW) throughflow to the Arctic Ocean with the ice import is found. Salinities of both the dense shelf water site in the north-west Barents Sea and the north-eastward AW throughflow show a long term decrease, which can partly be explained by a less saline inflow of AW from the Norwegian Sea. The unusually low dense water salinities in the north-west Barents Sea during the 1990s appear to have a different origin, consistent with a response to oceanic heat advection and decreasing sea ice extent.     

北极环极边界流研究及其主要科学问题

北极环极边界流是新近揭示的重要海洋现象 ,是对北冰洋海洋环流长期研究结果综合得到的概念。在本文中 ,详细介绍了北极环极边界流的主要结构和水团特征 ,论述了研究北极环极边界流的意义和前景 ,深入探讨了北极环极边界流面对的科学问题 ,指出了解决这些问题的关键科研工作。文章指出 ,从整体上研究北极环极边界流是非常重要的 ,需要全面考察北冰洋的质量和能量平衡、深层水通风过程以及水体的混合过程。在进一步的研究工作中需要更多的有针对性的现场观测、开展多学科协作研究。数值模拟仍然是北极环极边界流的重要研究手段 ,需要改善数值模式 ,提高数值模拟的质量。     

Structure of the Fram Strait branch of the boundary current in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean

Recent mooring-based observations at several locations along the continental slope of the Arctic Ocean's Eurasian Basin showed a transformation of the Boundary Current (BC) from a mostly barotropic flow in Fram Strait to a jet-like baroclinic current northeast of Svalbard, and the reemergence of the barotropic structure of the flow in the eastern Eurasian Basin. This transformation is accompanied by a weakening of the flow from ～24 cm/s in Fram Strait to ～5 cm/s at the Lomonosov Ridge. The maximum of the baroclinic component of the BC at an intermediate depth (～200–370 m) is associated with the Atlantic Water core. The depth range of the baroclinic current maximum is controlled by cross-slope density gradients above and below the baroclinic velocity maximum as follows from the geostrophic balance of forces. According to the model simulations, the BC splits into shallow and deep branches in the proximity of Svalbard due to a divergence of isobaths, confirming topographically-controlled BC behavior. The shallow branch is located at a shelf break with a typical bottom depth of ～200 m and current speed of up to ～24 cm/s. The discussed results, which provide insight on some basic aspects of the dynamics of the BC (the major oceanic heat source for the Arctic Ocean), may be of importance for understanding of the ocean's role in shaping the arctic climate system state.     

Long-term variability in Arctic sea surface temperatures

In this study, we used 30 years of an operational sea surface temperature (SST) product, the NOAA Optimum Interpolation (OI) SST Version 2 dataset, to examine variations in Arctic SSTs during the period December 1981–October 2011. We computed annual SST anomalies and interannual trends in SST variations for the period 1982–2010; during this period, marginal (though statistically significant) increases in SSTs were observed in oceanic regions poleward of 60°N. A warming trend is evident over most of the Arctic region, the Beaufort Sea, the Chuckchi Sea, Hudson Bay, the Labrador Sea, the Iceland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, Bering Strait, etc.; Labrador Sea experienced higher temperature anomalies than those observed in other regions. However, cooling trends were observed in the central Arctic, some parts of Baffin Bay, the Kara Sea (south of Novaya Zemlya), the Laptev Sea, the Siberian Sea, and Fram Strait. The central Arctic region experienced a cooling trend only during 1992–2001; warming trends were observed during 1982–1991 and 2002–2010. We also examined a 30-yr (1982–2011) record of summer season (June–July–August) SST variations and a 29-yr (1982–2010) record of September SST variations, the results of which are discussed.     

North Atlantic Water in the Barents Sea Opening, 1997 to 1999

North Atlantic Water (NAW) is an important source of heat and salt to the Nordic seas and the Arctic Ocean. To measure the transport and variability of one branch of NAW entering the Arctic, a transect across the entrance to the Barents Sea was occupied 13 times between July 1997 and November 1999, and hydrography and currents were measured. There is large variability between the cruises, but the mean currents and the hydrography show that the main inflow takes place in Bjørnøyrenna, with a transport of 1.6 Sv of NAW into the Barents Sea. Combining the flow field with measurements of temperature and salinity, this results in mean heat and salt transports by NAW into the Barents Sea of 3.9×10¹³ W and 5.7×10⁷ kg s⁻¹, respectively. The NAW core increased in temperature and salinity by 0.7 °C yr⁻¹ and 0.04 yr⁻¹, respectively, over the observation period. Variations in the transports of heat and salt are, however, dominated by the flow field, which did not exhibit a significant change.     

Volume, heat and salt transport by the West Spitsbergen Current

During the summer of 2000 (June-July) 14 CTD and ADCP transects perpendicular to the West Spitsbergen Current and along the western border of the Barents Sea were made. The measurements covered the area between 69° 43'and 80° N and 01° and 20° E. The main purpose was to follow changes in volume, heat and salt content of Atlantic Water (AW) on its way north. The strongest and most stable flow of AW was located along the continental slope where northward flowing currents exceeding 40 cm/sec were measured. A few weaker northward branches were also found to the west of the slope. South-directed currents were recorded between them and eddy-like mesoscale structures were commonly observed. Measured by vessel-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (VM-ADCP), the net northward transport of AW volume in the upper 136 m layer decreased from nearly 6 Sv at the southernmost transect to below 1 Sv at a latitude of 78° 50'N. Similarly, heat transport drops from about 173 TW to about 9 TW and relative salt transport (over 34.92 psu) from 980 × 10³ kg/sec to 14 × 10³ kg/sec. Transport in the southern direction prevails at the transect located between 79° 07'and 79° 30'N. The calculated baroclinic geostrophic transport of AW volume, heat and salt in the upper 1000 m layer behaves similarly. East-directed transport dominates at the Barents Sea boundary while westward flow prevails on the western side of the West Spitsbergen Current.     

Particle-laden Eurasian Arctic sea ice: observations from July and August 1987

During the summer 1987 expedition of the polar research vessel'Polarstern'in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean, sea ice at about 84-86°N and 20-30°E was found to have high concentrations of particulate material. The particle-laden ice occurred in patches which often darkened more than half the ice surface at our northernmost positions. Much of this ice appeared to be within the Siberian Branch of the Transpolar Drift stream, which transports deformed, multi-year ice from the Siberian shelves westward across the Eurasian Basin. Lithogenic sediment, which is the major component of the particulate material, may have been incorporated during ice formation on the shallow Siberian seas. Diatoms collected from the particle-rich ice surfaces support this conclusion, as assemblages were dominated by a marine benthic species similar to that reported from sea ice off the coast of northeast Siberia. Based on drift trajectories of buoys deployed on the ice it appears that much of the particle-laden ice exited the Arctic Ocean through the Fram Strait and joined the East Greenland Current.
Very different sea ice characteristics were found east of the Yermak Plateau and north of Svalbard and Frans Josef Land up to about 83-84°N. Here sea ice was thinner, less deformed, with lower amounts of lithogenic sediment and diatoms. The diatom assemblage was dominated by planktonic freshwater species. Trajectories of buoys deployed on sea ice in this region indicated a tendency for southward transport to the Yermak Plateau or into the Barents Sea.     

The outflow of polar water through the Arctic Archipelago and the oceanographic conditions in Baffin Bay

The transports of mass, heat, and salt through the Arctic Archipelago are estimated by two different approaches. First: A baroclinic, rotationally controlled flow is assumed through the Arctic Archipelago and the Davis Strait, with all passages transporting at maximum capacity. Second: Mass, salt, and energy balances are considered for the upper 'cold core' in Baffin Bay. The mass transport in the first case decreases and in the second case increases with increasing salinity in the Beaufort Sea. It is thus possible to determine a salinity at which both approaches give the same mass transport. The outflow in the upper layers is estimated at 0.7 · 10⁹ kg s⁻¹ with a salinity of 32.9. The amount of water from the Polar Ocean entering the deeper (Atlantic) layer in Baffin Bay is more difficult to assess. A tentative value of 0.3 10·kg s⁻¹ with a salinity cf 34.3 is proposed.     

Hydrographic conditions in the Fram Strait, summer 1982

Hydrographic (CTD) observations obtained with R/V'Lance'in July-August 1982 across the Fram Strait are presented. The extent and the presence of traditional water masses such as Atlantic Water, Polar Water and Greenland Sea Deep Water are discussed. The complicated hydrographical structure in the upper water masses due to eddies and fronts near the ice edge is noted. An intermediate water mass characterized by a salinity minimum is found all across the Strait, and is suggested to originate in the Greenland Sea. The deep water in the south-west part of the Strait shows strong horizontal salinity and temperature gradients, and the structure of the corresponding station profiles indicates large hydrographical activity. This is in contrast to the east-north-east part, where the horizontal gradients are much weaker and the profiles much smoother. Thus most of the deep-and bottom-water communication between the Greenland/ Norwegian Seas and the Arctic Ocean seems to take place west of the 0° meridian.     

南北极海冰变化及其影响因素的对比分析

海冰是海洋-大气交互系统的重要组成部分,与全球气候系统间存在灵敏的响应和反馈机制。本文选用欧洲空间局发布的1992—2008年海冰密集度数据分析了南北极海冰在时间和空间上的变化规律与趋势,并结合由美国环境预报中心(National Centers for Environmental Prediction,NCEP)和美国大气研究中心(National Center for Atmospheric Research, NCAR)联合制作的NCEP/NCAR气温数据和ENSO指数探讨了南北极海冰变化的影响因素。结果表明,北极海冰面积呈明显的减少趋势,其中夏季海冰最小月的减少更快。北冰洋中央海盆区、巴伦支海、喀拉海、巴芬湾和拉布拉多海的减少最明显。南极海冰面积呈微弱增加趋势,罗斯海、太平洋扇区和大西洋扇区的海冰增加。北极海冰面积与气温有显著的滞后1个月的负相关关系(P0.01)。北极升温显著,北冰洋中央海盆区、喀拉海、巴伦支海、巴芬湾和楚科奇海升温趋势最大,海冰减少很明显。南极在南大西洋、南太平洋呈降温趋势,海冰增加。北极海冰减少与39个月之后ONI的下降、40个月之后SOI的上升密切相关;南极海冰增加与7个月之后ONI的下降、6个月之后SOI的上升存在很好的响应关系。南北极海冰变化与三次ENSO的强暖与强冷事件有很好的对应关系。     

Calanus in North Norwegian fjords and in the Barents Sea

The Physical environment of a North Norwegian fjord and of the Atlantic and Arctic domains of the Barents Sea are described. The seasonal variation of primary production and biomass of the most important copepod species are described in order to contrast regional differences in the timing of the plankton cycles. Analysis of the seasonal variation in the biomass of six different copepod species in Balsfjorden clearly demonstrate the importance of Calanus finmarchkus as a spring and early summer form, whereas Pseudoculanus acuspes , the most important smaller form, reaches the highest biomass later during the productive season. In the Atlantic part of the Barents Sea, C. finmarchkus is the dominant herbivorous form. The next most important species, Pseudocalanus sp. and M. longa , play a less important role here than in Balsfjorden. In the Arctic domain, the smaller copepod forms appear to have been replaced in trophodynamic terms by the youngest year-group (C-CIII) of C. glacialis , which prevails during the Arctic summer and autumn periods. The coupling between primary producers and Calanus on a seasonal basis is addressed through the grazing and the vertical organisation of the plant-herbivore community. The productivity of these two Calanus species is considered in relation to the seasonal and inter-annual variation in climate; although different mechanisms are utilised, cold periods tend to lower Calanus productivity both in the Arctic and the Atlantic domains of the Barents Sea. Interannual variations in Calanus biomass and productivity are discussed in the perspective of endemic and advective processes.     

影响北极地区迅速变化的一些关键过程研究

最近研究证明 ,近半个世纪来 ,北极地区正在发生迅速变化。部分地区温度上升了 2- 3°C ,北冰洋海冰退缩 5 %,中心地区海冰厚度变薄 ,海面压力降低 ,中上层水淡化和变暖 ,吸收CO2 能力增加 ,臭氧耗损和紫外线辐射增强。中国于 1 999年开展了“中国首次北极科学考察” ,在楚科奇海、加拿大海盆、白令海以及临近海域开展了海冰气相互作用的多学科综合考察 ,对北极的区域特征及其在全球变化中的作用研究获得一些新的认识。观测到加拿大海盆中层水持续增暖的现象 ,揭示了西北冰洋与白令海水体交换的途径和次表层暖水结构 ,发现了加拿大海盆是北冰洋河水的主要储存区。利用联合冰站观测数据 ,模拟了北冰洋夏季大气边界层结构和下垫面能量平衡的变化特征 ,定量给出了北冰洋夏季海 /气和冰 /气之间湍流通量和边界层参数的差异。海 /气CO2 的通量观测表明 ,考察区的大部分海域均为大气CO2 汇区 ;西北冰洋海冰区具有较高的生物泵运转效率 ,楚科奇海陆架是一个高效的有机碳“汇”区 ,寒冷水体中微生物活动并未受到明显抑制。沉积物的地球化学过程研究表明 ,海底表层沉积物中碘含量存在着由低纬度到高纬度增加趋势 ,北极地区可能是碘的汇区 ,碘可作为极区古海洋中的地球化学元素变化的重要指标。楚科奇海、白令海     

北极海冰与大气环流耦合主模态的时空特征分析

对1979—2009年月平均的CFSR（The Climate Forecast System Reanalysis）海冰密集度（SIC）和海平面气压（SLP）资料进行多变量经验正交函数分解（MV—EOF）,得出耦合主模态,并通过对温度、位势高度和风场的回归分析,进一步探寻海冰与大气环流的关系,第一模态SLP的特征为北极涛动（AO）,SIC呈离散的正负中心分布但大体为东西反位相,AO正位相时,喀拉海、拉普捷夫海、东西伯利亚海和鄂霍次克海海冰减少,巴芬湾、波弗特海、楚科奇海和白令海海冰增加。耦合第二模态的SLP呈偶极子分布,负、正异常中心在巴伦支海和波弗特海,SIC在巴伦支海,弗拉姆海峡,格陵兰海,拉布拉多海和白令海,鄂霍次克海地区有正异常,在喀拉海、拉普捷夫海、东西伯利亚海、楚科齐海和波弗特海为负异常。耦合第三模态SLP在冰岛地区存在负异常中心,在拉普捷夫海地区有正异常中心,SIC在巴伦支海北部、弗拉姆海峡、格陵兰海为负异常,其余地区全为正异常。 对SLP和SIC分别进行EOF分解,并与耦合模态进行比较,SLP的EOF主模态的时空分布与耦合模态中SLP的时空分布十分相似,SIC的EOF模态的时空分布则与耦合模态中SIC的时空分布有较大差别,说明耦合模态对SIC的分布影响较大,即大气环流对海冰分布的影响为主要的过程,海冰对大尺度的大气环流的模态的影响不明显。     

Upper layer circulation of the Nordic seas as inferred from the spatial distribution of heat and freshwater content and potential energy

The spatial distribution of heat and freshwater content and potential energy of a several hundred metre thick surface layer are computed for the Nordic seas and adjacent parts of the northern North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean using a total of almost 100 000 hydrographic stations. The fields clearly show the major features of the area's circulation, with warm salty water in the eastern part and fresher, colder water in the western part. Comparisons with published estimates show that the potential energy field, representing the baroclinic part of the flow, accounts for about 30 % of the total flow but roughly 100 % of the flow of Polar Water in the northern part of the East Greenland Current, about 50 % of the total flow in the Norwegian Atlantic Current, and just a small fraction of the flow in the eastern part of Fram Strait. This suggests that the barotropic circulation is quite important in many parts of the Nordic seas. The barotropic circulation is also clearly seen by its effects on the integrated fields with isolines following deep bathymetric contours. We speculate that the barotropic circulation in combination with topographic obstacles, like the Greenland–Scotland Ridge and the ridge system in the Jan Mayen area, may have large impact on the spreading of freshwater and heat in the Nordic seas.     

Direct measurements of volume transports through Fram Strait

Heat and freshwater transports through Fram Strait are understood to have a significant influence on the hydrographic conditions in the Arctic Ocean and on water mass modifications in the Nordic seas. To determine these transports and their variability reliable estimates of the volume transport through the strait are required. Current meter moorings were deployed in Fram Strait from September 1997 to September 1999 in the framework of the EU MAST III Variability of Exchanges in the Northern Seas programme. The monthly mean velocity fields reveal marked velocity variations over seasonal and annual time scales, and the spatial structure of the northward flowing West Spitsbergen Current and the southward East Greenland Current with a maximum in spring and a minimum in summer. The volume transport obtained by averaging the monthly means over two years amounts to 9.5 ± 1.4 Sv to the north and 11.1 ± 1.7 Sv to the south (1 Sv = 10⁶ m³s⁻¹). The West Spitsbergen Current has a strong barotropic and a weaker baroclinic component; in the East Greenland Current barotropic and baroclinic components are of similar magnitude. The net transport through the strait is 4.2 ± 2.3 Sv to the south. The obtained northward and southward transports are significantly larger than earlier estimates in the literature; however, within its range of uncertainty the balance obtained from a two year average is consistent with earlier estimates.     

环北极沉积盆地结构与构造演化特征——来自环北极地质长剖面的证据

通过对北极地区不同盆地结构的系统研究与对比分析,绘制了环北极沉积盆地群长剖面,剖面全长约13 000 km,涉及季曼-伯朝拉盆地等15个盆地和微陆。由于整个剖面尺度巨大,在若干缺乏详细资料的地区采用将邻近地区的其他剖面平移到本剖面中,或由其两侧的剖面地层和构造形式推测。剖面涉及的盆地多属叠合性质,涵盖克拉通盆地、裂谷盆地、前陆盆地、被动大陆边缘盆地等多种盆地类型;各区域沉积厚度差异显著,最厚的东巴伦支海等盆地沉积了自古生界至新生界的地层,沉积厚度可达近15 km ,而沉积最薄处的拉普捷夫海等盆地则只发育了从中生界上白垩统至新生界的沉积,厚度不超过4 km。以北大西洋—北冰洋洋中脊为界,北极地区分属欧亚板块和北美板块,很多盆地为大陆的一部分或大陆向北冰洋的延伸部分（大陆架）。各盆地的发育主要受波罗的板块、西伯利亚板块与劳伦古陆显生宙以来的构造演化控制;加里东运动、埃尔斯米尔运动、海西运动（乌拉尔运动）及大西洋洋脊自南向北的扩张对环北极盆地均有显著影响,具体表现为造成盆地类型的改变、改变盆地沉降速率等。     

Biomass and respiratory ETS activity of microplankton in the Barents Sea

The activity of the respiratory electron transport system (ETS) of microplankton was measured in the Central Barents Sea during summer 1988. In vitro ETS activity increased with assay temperature between 0 and 2°C, as reported for other enzyme systems in plankton. The higher in situ activities were observed near the surface (upper 10-25 m) and were associated with chlorophyll a maxima. Respiratory activity in the upper 60 m accounted for 40-60% of the total column respiration. The activities (0-100 m) were lower than oxygen consumption rates reported in the Canadian Arctic, mainly due to lower phytoplankton biomass. They were higher than ETS activity measured in the Weddell Sea (Antarctic Ocean). A high detrital versus total microplankton mass accounted for the low activity related to particulate organic carbon (POC). In general, the levels of respiratory ETS activity were in the range reported for temperate oligotrophic oceanic regions.     

ERA40中北半球高纬地区冬季气候变化和冰-气相互作用特征分析

利用欧洲中期天气预报中心(ECMWF)再分析资料(ERA40)分析了最近几十年冬季北半球高纬地区的气候变化和冰-气相互作用特征。在全球增暖背景下,冬季北半球高纬地区增温幅度更大,但温度变化明显具有区域性特点。20世纪70年代末期开始,格陵兰海、巴伦支海及欧亚大陆大部分区域和北美大陆部分区域在增暖,而拉布拉多海、格陵兰和白令海峡区域却变冷。与此对应,中央北极区及气候冰岛低压中心海平面气压在降低,而再往南区域海平面气压在升高。从20世纪70年代开始,格陵兰海和巴伦支海给大气的感热通量和潜热通量增多,这说明由于气温增加,使得海冰密集度减小,海冰对海气感热通量和潜热通量交换的隔离层作用减小,通量交换大大增加。而在挪威海非海冰区,由于气温增加,海气温差减小,海洋给大气的感热通量和潜热通量减少。在拉布拉多海,由于气温降低,海气温差增大,使得海洋给大气的感热通量和潜热通量增加,有利于拉布拉多海海冰的增多。海平面气压、海冰密集度及表面感热通量和潜热通量之和对大气表面温度 EOF 展开第一模时间系数的线性回归结果均与各自的EOF 展开第一模空间分布特征接近。     

Stratification and water mass formation in the Arctic Ocean: some implications for the nutrient distribution

The mixing processes and the water formations (transformations) in the Arctic Ocean are reviewed and their influence on the stratification discussed. The relations between the stratification and the nutrient distribution are examined. The interactions between drifting sea ice and advected warmer and nutrient-rich waters favour an early biological activity. By contrast, in the central Arctic Ocean and over comparably deep shelf areas such as the northern Barents Sea, the possibilities for large productivity are more limited because of late melting, less nutrient supply, and in the central Arctic, less available light. The sedimentation of organic matter on the shelves and the remineralisation into cold, dense waters formed by brine rejection and draining off the shelves lead to a loss of nutrients to the deep waters, which must be compensated for by advection of nutrient rich waters to the Arctic Ocean.
Possible effects of a reduction of the river run-off on the stratification and the nutrient distribution are discussed.