不同应力途径下岩石的体积变化

本文介绍了对岩石在不同应力途径下的体积变化进行的实验研究。主要的应力途径有三种,并且都是首先把岩石加载到破裂前一定的应力状态,再分别三种类型加载。实验用电阻应变片测量纵向和横向应变以计算体应变。实验表明:同一种岩石在不同应力途径下膨胀效应有显著的不同。文中用辉长岩的实验数据对过密量和超膨胀量进行了估算。研究表明,过密与膨胀是应力途径变化时岩石体积变化的滞后效应。研究了B型实验过密状态出现的条件。从强度80%左右开始减小最小主应力的B型实验明显表现经历过密状态。从低应力状态(强度50%左右)和高应力状态(强度92%以上)开始减小最小应力的B型实验,岩石均未经历过密状态。最后联系地震预报问题进行了简单的讨论     

应力途径和破裂前兆

本文研究了在不同的应力途径下岩石破坏的条件和破裂的前兆.选定了三种应力途径进行研究:在一定应力状态下增加最大主应力σ₁, 保持σ₂, σ₃不变, 使岩石破坏（A 型）;减小最小主应力使岩石破坏（B 型）;增加最小主应力岩石不破坏（C 型）.通过实验得到了济南辉长岩和昌平花岗岩 A 型途径和 B 型途径破裂强度的比较.对三种途径岩石的体应变、声发射和波速V_p, 进行了对比研究.A 型途径的破裂前兆表现与许多作者的结果相符合.B 型途径岩石断裂前处于"过密"状态, 与此相联系的声发射增加和波速V_p下降出现得很晚.C 型途径岩石处于超膨胀状态, 出现了声发射增加和波速V_p下降而岩石并未破坏的现象.      

不同应力途径下辉长岩的微破裂特征

本文对济南辉长岩经历不同应力途径后岩石晶粒内的微破裂特征的观测进行了研究.实验中岩石样品首先承受较高的围压(使应力差达到岩石强度的80%),然后分别按 A,B,C 三种途径进行实验.三种途径已在另一文中作了叙述(见地震学报第2卷第3期237页).实验结束后,将岩石样品切开,制成标准薄片及光片.通过显微镜的观测发现,三种应力途径所引起的微破裂性质明显不同.在 B 型实验中,长石晶粒内的微裂纹表现得短小,其长度多数不超过长石晶粒短轴的长度.整个岩石样品内微裂纹的分布密集于较小的范围内.在 C型实验中,倾斜裂纹数量增多,长石晶粒中的裂纹比 A 和 B 实验更长和更多,出现一种星状的微裂纹.观测到的辉长岩的微观现象可能说明与岩石标本过密、超膨胀现象有关.      

不同应力途径三轴压缩下岩石的声发射

在不同加载方式的三轴实验中,观测了济南辉长岩和北京昌平花岗岩的声发射(围压达1.3千巴).当最大主应力增加使岩样破坏时(A型),平均声发射率逐渐增加,离破裂强度约几百巴时声发射急剧增多.而当岩石处于一定的高应力状态,通过减小围压使岩样破坏时(B型),声发射的急剧增加仅出现在离破裂差应力20-30巴的情况下,而且这种破裂过程声发射总数只有 A 型的1/3左右.在 B 型加载情况下,从应力场的球张量部分(流体静压力)来看,是一个卸载过程,而从偏张量部分来看,是一个加载过程.这种卸载过程的存在很可能是造成声发射不同特征的主要原因.      

应力途径对岩石脆性-延性变化的影响

用两种加载方式对岩石的破裂进行了实验研究。一种方式是在一定的围压下增加轴压使岩石破裂（A型）;另一种方式是在一定围压下增加轴压直到破裂前某一应力状态,然后停止加轴压转而减小围压使岩石破裂（B型）。所用的岩石样品为济南辉长岩和山东掖县白大理岩。着重研究应力途径对岩石脆性-延性变化的影响。辉长岩在1.5千巴以下两种应力途径下的破裂都表现为脆性,但是对于同样的应力状态,B型实验比A型实验显得更脆。随着围压增加到200-250巴之间,大理岩由脆性转变为延性。围压250巴以上,大理岩的A型实验发生延性破裂。样品承受载荷的能力是逐渐丧失的。破裂过程中声发射率极低,听不到破裂声响。最后在样品中形成了剪切断面,但破裂很慢。然而,在大理岩的B型实验中,围压在250巴以上发生了脆性破裂,其表现为轴向应力突然下降,伴随着脆性破裂的声响并有声发射率剧增的前兆。看来,B型应力途径对岩石起了一个脆化的作用。     

The effect of orthorhombic anisotropy and its implication for oil recovery and reservoir exploitation

Results of an experimental study of shear‐ and compressional‐wave propagation in an orthorhombically anisotropic medium are presented. The experiments were performed on a physical model consisting of two sets of fractures. The first set consisted of orientated rubber inclusions simulating weak material‐filled cracks. The second set consisted of a system of closely spaced parallel fractures simulated by thin plates of epoxy resin, superimposed orthogonally on the first set. Three cases of fracture orientations within the model were identified and studied. Case 1 is analogous to a jointed fracture reservoir with one vertical set of fluid‐filled cracks or fractures and one non‐filled horizontal set. This case is referred to as JFV. Case 2 is analogous to a double fracture reservoir with one horizontal set of fluid‐filled fractures or cracks and one non‐filled vertical set. This is referred to as DFH. Case 3 is analogous to a double fracture reservoir with two vertical sets of fractures or cracks, with only one fluid‐filled. Case 3 is referred to as DFV. A pulse transmission method was performed on all three modelled cases along the three principal axes. A directional variation in the compressional‐ and shear‐wave velocities, as well as distinct shear‐wave splitting, was observed. The elastic constants for each case were determined and differences between them were noted and compared with the controlled results of both layered (transverse isotropy, TI) and vertically fractured (azimuthally anisotropic models, VF) media. The differences in elastic moduli and velocities indicate the potential of recognizing the different fracture orientations and suggest an approach to designing a method of drilling to further enhance oil recovery and reservoir exploitation.     

Offset dependence of overburden time-shifts from ultrasonic data

Depletion or injection into a reservoir implies stress changes and strains in the reservoir and its surroundings. This may lead to measurable time-shifts for seismic waves propagating in the subsurface. To better understand the offset dependence of time-shifts in the overburden, we have systematically quantified the time-shifts of three different overburden shales in controlled laboratory tests. These experiments may be viewed as an analogue to the time-shifts recorded from seismic field surveys. For a range of different stress paths, defined as the ratio between the horizontal and the vertical stress changes, the changes of the P-wave velocities in different directions were measured such that the offset dependence of time-shifts for different stress paths could be studied. The time-shifts are stress path dependent, which is particularly pronounced at large offsets. For all stress paths, the time-shifts exhibit a linearly decreasing trend with increasing offset, that is, a negative offset gradient. At zero offset, for which the ray path is normal to the bedding, the time-shifts are similar for all investigated stress paths. The isotropic stress path is associated with the smallest offset gradient of the time-shifts. In contrast, the constant-mean-stress path shows the largest gradient with a flip in the polarity of the time-shifts for the largest offsets. The separate contributions from the strain and velocity changes to the time-shifts were also quantified. The time-shifts for the isotropic stress path are dominated by the contribution from velocity changes at all offsets. In contrast, the strain contributes significantly to the time-shifts at small offsets for the constant-mean-stress path. This shows that the offset dependence in pre-stack seismic data may be a key to understand the changes of subsurface stresses, pore pressure and strain upon depletion or injection. To utilize this knowledge from laboratory experiments, calibrated rock physics models and correlations are needed to constrain the seismic time-shifts and to obtain an adequately updated geological model reflecting the true anisotropic nature of the subsurface. This may have important implications for improved recovery and safety, particularly in mature fields.     

最小主应力减小引起岩石破坏时中间主应力的影响

过去曾用常规的三轴试验机研究过减小围压引起的岩石破坏。这种实验的局限性在于中等主应力和最小主应力始终保持相等。本实验使用茂木的真三轴试验机研究了单独减小最小主应力引起的岩石破坏。发现岩石的强度、变形、延性和脆性等力学性质与常规实验有明显的差异。证实了茂木在增大最大主应力引起岩石破坏的一系列实验中阐明的中等主应力效应,在减小最小主应力引起岩石破坏的实验中仍然存在。     

震源应力场与构造应力场

每个地震按照双力偶模型所得到的震源应力场,有的反映构造应力场,有的反映转换应力场。凡是在已存在的活动断裂上由粘滑发震的震源机制解而得出的P、B和T轴与构造应力场的最大、中等、最小的压力主轴是对应的,只是略有偏离。分析了岩块相对滑动产生的转换应力场,证明由转换应力场所产生的脆性剪切破裂而发震的震源机制解得出的P、B、T轴则与构造应力场三个主轴方向可以完全不符。通过对具体震例分析表明,当考虑了转换应力场之后可对几个地震区的应力场得到统一的解释。因此,在一个地区根据震源机制解来恢复构造应力场时必须先判明:是构造应力的直接作用下的粘滑或剪切破裂,还是转换应力场所形成的、共轭剪切破裂,前者可直接恢复构造应力场,后者则应经过转换寸能恢复构造应力场。     

我国现今地应力状态及有关问题

本文主要利用应力解除法及水压致裂法原地应力测量资料,对我国现今地应力状态及有关问题进行了分析讨论。原地应力测量资料表明,应力值随深度增加而增加;水平主应力有着很强的方向性,最大水平主应力的方向具有一定的分布规律,与地质构造和现代地壳运动有着一定的关系。      

地铁列车荷载作用下黏弹性地基动应力特征分析

基于Kelvin空间半无限体黏弹性解,以单个轮轴荷载为例,研究地铁列车荷载下地基土动应力状态、应力路径及主应力轴旋转等应力变化规律,并与相应弹性解下的各动应力特征进行对比分析,探讨更适用于工程实际的地基附加动应力特征解。结果表明:弹性地基与黏弹性地基中的各应力状态变化总体趋势、主应力轴旋转变化趋势相同,但极限应力状态各应力分量大小及应力路径形状有明显差别,考虑黏弹性解更符合软土区地铁长期变形实际工况;并对单轮荷载下动应力特征的黏弹性解进行参数分析,发现特征系数对应力分量影响具有不同特性。     

应力减小引起地震

最近完成的岩石力学实验表明,在三轴应力状态下最大主应力的增加、中等主应力的变化(增加或减小)和最小主应力的减小都能导致岩石的破坏。由此启示,地震的发生既可能由地壳中的最大主应力的增加引起,又可能由中等主应力或最小主应力的减小引起。讨论了地壳中可能引起应力减小的作用,并从地震活动的规律性探讨了应力减小引起地震的可能性。指出在地震研究的各个领域中,不仅应考虑应力增加和能量积累过程中发生的地震,还应考虑在应力减小和能量减小过程中引起的地震。      

应力减小引起的岩石破坏与地震

最近完成的岩石力学三轴实验表明,岩石的破坏既能由最大主应力的增加引起,又能由中等主应力的变化(增加或减小)或最小主应力的减小引起,因此联系到地震的发生也是如此。地震前必须有一个应力和能量的增加过程,但地震不一定发生在应力和能量的增加过程中,地震也可以发生在应力和能量的减小过程中。文章还讨论了能够引起地壳中应力减小的作用,並从地震活动性方面探索应力减小引起地震的可能性。     

中等主应力变化引起的岩石破坏与地震

用真三轴试验机对福田花岗岩和山口大理岩进行了实验研究.表明,如果从一定的应力状态开始,保持最大主应力和最小主应力不变,单独改变中等主应力可以引起岩石的破坏.在这种情况下破坏前声发射率急剧增长的前兆比由最大主应力增加引起岩石破坏时的声发射前兆出现晚得多.联系这一现象对中等主应力变化引起地震的可能性进行了探讨.      

Seismological Studies of a Fluid Injection in Sedimentary Rocks, East Texas

—?Induced microseismicity data from a large volume fluid injection into sedimentary rock was analyzed to study the fracture system, fluid pathways, and state of stress in the lower Frio formation in east Texas. Seismicity data are from two arrays of 25 3-component geophone packages sited in two monitoring boreholes. From a total of 2,894 event triggers, a subset of 54 microearthquakes was chosen for their high quality seismograms and clear P and S arrivals. Arrival times were picked with a precision of 0.5 to 1.0?ms, and microearthquakes were located with hypocentral uncertainties estimated as less than 10–20?m. Hypocenters farthest from the injection well define a nearly horizontal tube of seismicity approximately aligned in the direction of the injection well. A simultaneous inversion of arrival times for transverse isotropic velocity structure and hypocenters yielded P-wave anisotropy of ?14% and S-wave anisotropy of ?2%. Thus, velocities along vertical ray paths are higher than those along horizontal paths, probably because of lithologic differences. Single-event focal mechanisms were determined for 47 events, and many of them are normal fault type. The minimum principal stress derived from the focal mechanisms is nearly horizontal and trends approximately north-south, consistent with the regional stress state. An imaging analysis of the seismograms shows the presence of strong seismic scatterers at positions that correlate with boundaries seen in the hypocenters; both features probably result from a similar set of heterogeneities. This study demonstrates the abundance of information that can be extracted from induced seismicity data and underscores the value of induced seismicity monitoring for studying the fluid and fracture systems created by fluid injections.     

The fractal geometry of flow paths in natural fractures in rock and the approach to percolation

The distributions of contact areas in single, natural fractures in quartz monzonite (Stripa granite) are found to have fractal dimensions which decrease fromD=2.00 to values nearD=1.96 as stress normal to the fractures is increased from 3 MPa up to 85 MPa. The effect of stress on fluid flow is studied in the same samples. Fluid transport through a fracture depends on two properties of the fracture void space geometry. the void aperture; and the tortuosity of the flow paths, determined through the distribution of contact area. Each of these quantities change under stress and contribute to changes observed in the flow rate. A general flow law is presented which separates these different effects. The effects of tortuosity on flow are largely governed by the proximity of the flow path distribution to a percolation threshold. A fractal model of correlated continuum percolation is presented which quantitatively reproduces the flow path geometries. The fractal dimension in this model is fit to the measured fractal dimensions of the flow systems to determine how far the flow systems are above the percolation threshold.     

ESTIMATING THE MAGNITUDE OF TECTONIC STRESS BASED ON THE FRICTION CRITERIA OF FAULT AND ANALYSING THE PARAMETERS' INFLUENCE

Based on Zoback's method for estimating the tectonic stress magnitude and the two assumptions, we consider the conditions that three principal stresses are vertical principal stresses respectively(corresponding to three kinds of tectonic stress types). We deduced the formulae for estimating the tectonic stress magnitude by using the stress form factor and frictional strength of the fault and discussed the correlative influence of friction coefficient, pore pressure parameter and stress form factor on the stress value. When the maximum principal stress is approximately horizontal (when stress regime is strike-slip or reverse), the maximum principal stress (or the slope of stress increasing linearly with depth) is positively related with the friction coefficient and negatively related with the pore pressure coefficient. When the minimum principal stress is approximately horizontal (when stress regime is strike-slip or normal), the minimum principal stress (or the slope with depth) is negatively related to the friction coefficient, and positive to the pore pressure. Besides, these three parameters have great influence on the estimation of the tectonic stress magnitude. If the friction coefficient is too big and the pore pressure is too small, there could be a wide difference between the slope of the maximum principal stress increasing with depth and the slope of the minimum principal stress increasing with depth, which could lead to an unreasonable result. Our method is just an approximate estimation for the tectonic stress magnitude when crustal rocks have undergone brittle rupture or frictional sliding. The estimated results are not the tectonic stress magnitude when crust is in steady state.     

用断裂力学的方法研究地震断裂的扩展方式

本文基于断裂力学的实验结果和理论,结合地震资料及其研究结果提出了关于地震断层扩展的一种新的模式--地震断裂扩展的曲面模式;并用数值的方法计算了在二维情况下地震断层沿曲面（线）扩展的途径。根据这类地震的特点,指出对于这种地震可由其总体破裂的方向确定其发震地区的最大构造主压应力方向。并对唐山等地震实例提出了解释。 在计算方法上,本文对流行的有限单元方法进行了改进,使存贮减少,并提高了计算速度。     

中主应力对击实黄土强度和变形特性的影响

为研究中主应力对击实黄土强度和变形特性的影响,利用空心圆柱扭剪仪对击实黄土进行主应力轴方向为0°的定向剪切试验,重点探讨中主应力系数b对剪切过程中击实黄土强度和变形的影响。试验结果表明,在不同中主应力系数下试样的广义剪应力-应变曲线发展模式基本相同,其曲线差异不显著,剪切后期试样表现出显著的延性特性。中主应力对击实黄土的强度影响较大,b=0.25时归一化强度最大,而b=0.5时最小。当b从0到0.25时强度增加;当b=0.25时强度达到峰值,随着b的继续增加,强度迅速减小;当b=0.5时强度达到最小值,随着b的进一步增加,强度先增大后减小。随着中主应力系数b的增加,击实黄土的有效内摩擦角呈现增大的趋势,强度参数在b=0时最小,b=0.75时最大,b=1(三轴拉伸)高于b=0(三轴压缩)。