Subsidence due to crack closure and depressurization of hydrothermal systems: a case study from Mt Epomeo (Ischia Island,Italy)

Levelling surveys carried out between 1990 and 2003 on the Mt Epomeo resurgent block (Ischia Island) record negative dislocations on its northern and southern flanks with a maximum subsidence rate of 1.27 cm yr⁻¹. This deformation is not associated with the cooling, crystallization or lateral drainage of magma and cannot be explained by a pressure point or prolate ellipsoid source. Results from dislocation models and the available structural and geochemical information indicate that the subsidence is due to crack closure processes along two main ENE–WSW and E–W preexisting faults, which represent the preferred pathway of CO₂ degassing from the hydrothermal system located beneath Mt Epomeo. The monitoring of the dislocations and CO₂ flux along these faults could give useful information on the dynamics of the hydrothermal system.     

天然金刚石同生位错的同步辐射X射线貌相研究

利用同步辐射白光透射貌相术研究了辽南天然金刚石的晶体缺陷。采用作者提出的计算晶体缺陷空间取向的方法计算了金刚石中位错的取向。晶体中所有位错均起源于晶核，并且柏氏矢量都平行于[1^-01]。多数位错并非位于{111}面内。位错所在晶面属于[1^-01]晶带，并且多数与{211}或{110}面近于平行。位错线平直，部分有拐折。所有位错均为混合位错。位错走向与生长面近于垂直，多数与＜111＞夹角较小。所有位错均为同生位错，形成后未发生滑移。晶核在形成期曾受到较大应力作用造成较大的晶格畸变。晶体内部未出现生长带，反映晶体成长过程中环境未发生大的变化。形成晶体的碳质来源不均一，反映了中元古代华北陆台下地壳岩浆成分的不均一性。     

Non-equilibrium water/rock interactions—I. Model for interface-controlled reactions

The results of established crystal growth theory and silicate dissolution experiments are combined in developing a new model for mineral/water reactions controlled by surface processes. The overall reaction rate at steady-state is determined by coupling equations for the velocities of mass transport and interface detachment processes. Non-steady state processes can be successfully treated when interface reactions control the rate. For most sparingly soluble minerals, diffusion through the solution can be neglected as a rate-determining factor.Many surface processes are driven by the total interface under saturation, but only processes facilitating detachment contribute to dissolution. Other, non-detachment related, surface reactions result in lower dissolution rates. Slow rates of many mineral/solution reactions are attributed to the surface processes which consume the energy that would otherwise drive detachment.An analysis of the time dependence of interface reaction velocities indicates that linear rate laws apply when uniform detachment or layer-source generation mechanisms such as screw dislocations control the dissolution rate. At low interfacial undersaturations, first-order, logarithmic rate laws prevail. A parabolic time dependence occurs if surface detachment parameters vary as a function of (time)^{$\text{1}\text{2}$}.     

黔西北矿集区亮岩铅锌矿区成矿构造解析

亮岩铅锌矿是川滇黔接壤区黔西北铅锌矿集区的典型矿床之一。基于矿田地质力学理论与方法,通过对该矿床三个中段出露的垭都—蟒硐断裂带结构进行精细解析,综合矿床地质特征和区域构造分析,认为该区至少历经了三期构造成生发展过程,相应的主压应力方向依次变化为北西向→北东向→东西向,其中在成矿期主要受北西—南东向挤压作用,为北东构造带。因该断裂带走向变化,在其不同部位的力学性质相应发生改变,导致矿体赋存特征存在明显差异。结合黔西北矿集区内其它典型矿床控矿构造的对比研究,发现这些矿床具有相似的构造控矿规律,而且与滇东北矿集区会泽型（HZT）铅锌矿均受到统一的构造应力场控制。不同于垭都—蟒硐成矿带在成矿期受北西构造带构造体系控制的传统观点,该新认识认为燕山期北东—西南向挤压作用所形成的北西构造带构造体系为成矿后构造（破矿构造）。这些认识为该区乃至黔西北矿集区深部找矿预测提供了重要启示。      

Controls by saturation state on etch pit formation during calcite dissolution

Dissolution experiments were conducted on {101?4} cleavage faces of calcite at various under-saturations to determine how the saturation state controls etch pit formation. Experimental observations were made by using in situ fluid cell Atomic Force Microscopy. Three dissolution modes were observed. When the saturation index Ω > 0.541, no etch pit formation was seen and dissolution primarily occurred at existing steps. When Ω decreased to Ω_c = 0.541-0.410, the first visible pits appeared and continuous reduction in saturation state slowly increased the pit density on terraces while dissolution simultaneously proceeded at step edges. Finally, when the saturation state fell below Ω_max = ∼0.007, a precipitous increase in pit density took place that sharply contrasted to the ordered fashion of pit formation observed at saturation conditions above this level. These observations are interpreted to be two-dimensional and unassisted pit formation at Ω < ∼0.007, defect- and step-assisted dissolution in between Ω = 0.541 and 0.007, and existing step-induced dissolution for Ω > 0.541.The values of Ω_c are in good agreement with the dislocation theory's predicted critical under-saturations for pit formation at line dislocations. The occurrence of Ω_max is not directly predicted but is a logical consequence of dissolution thermodynamics. These findings suggest that (1) dissolution near and far from equilibrium (i.e., Ω > Ω_c, Ω < Ω_max) is not controlled by dislocations, therefore (2) dislocation density should significantly impact dissolution rate only in the saturation range of Ω_max < Ω < Ω_c; (3) dissolution kinetics and chemical affinity of dissolution reactions should have a non-linear relationship: at sufficiently close to equilibrium, when dislocations cannot open up to form etch pits, the dissolution kinetics will be limited by the number of existing steps; at far from equilibrium, when pits are able to form in defect-free regions, the dissolution rate will be capped by the maximum number of achievable steps.These findings may provide explanations for several well-observed geochemical relationships, including the weak dependence of dissolution rate upon dislocation density in distilled water and the ‘plateau’ behavior of dissolution kinetics both near and far from equilibrium. The explosive occurrence of unassisted pit nucleation at Ω ∼ Ω_max is not predicted by the current dissolution rate equations. This suggests that an accurate ‘general’ rate law describing universal dissolution processes has yet to be developed.     

Earthquake focal mechanism studies—A review

This article reviews the development of the study of the focal mechanism of earthquakes. The representation of focus by point and finite sources are reviewed. The use of initial motion and spectral amplitude of P-waves, the polarization of S-waves and the application of numerical methods in determining optimum solutions are discussed. A survey of the recent advances in the application of surface waves, free oscillations and static dislocations for the determination of focal mechanisms is given. A brief outline of the major results of the interpretation of the focal mechanism solution of earthquakes in terms of regional stress distributions and the geodynamic processes that are currently taking place is also included.     

Plumes and coastal currents near large river mouths

Theory and observations of river plumes are reviewed. The importance of the Kelvin number in characterizing anticipated plume behavior is stressed. In the absence of strong external forcing, a northern hemisphere plume will turn anticyclonically and attach to the coast, where it then merges into a coastal current. Observations and theory of such coastal currents are also reviewed, with emphasis on flows over shallow continental shelves. Major unresolved questions involve the processes controlling mixing of coastal current waters with ambient shelf waters and the dynamics of the plume in the region where it attaches to the coast.     

Tectonic deformation and recrystallisation of oligoclase

Naturally deformed and partially recrystallised oligoclase porphyroclasts were studied in a high voltage electron microscope. The oligoclases had a highly deformed outer mantle zone, which contained high densities of dislocations and albite and pericline deformation twins, and less deformed cores containing fewer dislocations and albite twins but no pericline deformation twins. There was little evidence for recovery; apparently the internal strain energy due to deformation was relieved by recrystallisation. Strain free nuclei developed in areas with the highest defect densities. The resultant new grains had a lower anorthite content than their parents. It is suggested that the recrystallisation processes were aided by strain enhanced diffusion.     

Static stress changes associated with normal faulting earthquakes in South Balkan area

Activation of major faults in Bulgaria and northern Greece presents significant seismic hazard because of their proximity to populated centers. The long recurrence intervals, of the order of several hundred years as suggested by previous investigations, imply that the twentieth century activation along the southern boundary of the sub-Balkan graben system, is probably associated with stress transfer among neighbouring faults or fault segments. Fault interaction is investigated through elastic stress transfer among strong main shocks (M ≥ 6.0), and in three cases their foreshocks, which ruptured distinct or adjacent normal fault segments. We compute stress perturbations caused by earthquake dislocations in a homogeneous half-space. The stress change calculations were performed for faults of strike, dip, and rake appropriate to the strong events. We explore the interaction between normal faults in the study area by resolving changes of Coulomb failure function (ΔCFF) since 1904 and hence the evolution of the stress field in the area during the last 100 years. Coulomb stress changes were calculated assuming that earthquakes can be modeled as static dislocations in an elastic half-space, and taking into account both the coseismic slip in strong earthquakes and the slow tectonic stress buildup associated with major fault segments. We evaluate if these stress changes brought a given strong earthquake closer to, or sent it farther from, failure. Our modeling results show that the generation of each strong event enhanced the Coulomb stress on along-strike neighbors and reduced the stress on parallel normal faults. We extend the stress calculations up to present and provide an assessment for future seismic hazard by identifying possible sites of impending strong earthquakes.     

Low-Temperature Plasticity of Naturally Deformed Calcite Rocks

Optical, cathodoluminescence and transmission electron microscope (TEM) analyses were conducted on four groups of calcite fault rocks, a cataclastic limestone, cataclastic coarse-grained marbles from two fault zones, and a fractured mylonite. These fault rocks show similar microstructural characteristics and give clues to similar processes of rock deformation. They are characterized by the structural contrast between macroscopic cataclastic (brittle) and microscopic mylonitic (ductile) microstructures. Intragranular deformation microstructures (i.e. deformation twins, kink bands and microfractures) are well preserved in the deformed grains in clasts or in primary rocks. The matrix materials are of extremely fine grains with diffusive features. Dislocation microstructures for co-existing brittle deformation and crystalline plasticity were revealed using TEM. Tangled dislocations are often preserved at the cores of highly deformed clasts, while dislocation walls form in the transitions to the fine-grained     

Dislocation nucleation and multiplication in synthetic quartz: Relevance to water weakening

Recent observations suggest that the water-related defects associated with the so-called water weakening of single crystals of “wet” synthetic quartz are high-pressure clusters of molecular water. The microstructures which evolve in these crystals during both creep and constant strain-rate experiments and by heating alone were observed by TEM and show that the clusters act as highly efficient sources of the glissile dislocations which must be nucleated before plastic flow can be induced. These microstructural observations, together with simple microdynamical concepts based on the Orowan equation, are used to rationalize the creep behaviour and all the main features of the stressstrain curves observed in “wet” synthetic quartz crystals with a wide range of bulk water-contents, without postulating any direct influence of water on dislocation glide. It is proposed, therefore, that the relatively low yield stress of “wet” synthetic quartz is primarily due to the ease with which fresh glissile dislocations are nucleated, rather than to an enhanced glide of hydrolysed dislocations as is generally assumed in most models of water weakening.     

Deformation mechanisms in experimentally deformed plagioclase feldspars

Optical and transmission electron microscopy have been used to study the microstructures in a series of plagioclase feldspars which had been experimentally deformed in compression. The observations show that deformation takes place by three mechanisms: (1) brittle fracture, (2) twinning and (3) slip due to the generation and motion of dislocations. Optical “deformation lamellae” are shown to be due to bunches of microfractures and to walls of tangled dislocations. Twins and fractures are often intimately associated and dislocations are often generated at fracture steps or voids. Moving dislocations apparently always generate a strip of fault in the slip plane. This, together with structural considerations as well as the visibility of dislocations (under various diffracting conditions) and the orientation of the applied stress, has made it possible to determine the slip systems which have operated in the deformed specimens.     

Growth condition of quartz crystals at the Zhelannoe deposit in the Nether-Polar Urals: Evidence from fluid and solid inclusions

The topography of various faces of quartz crystals indicates that the late growth of rock crystals occurred at a relatively slow rate, by the layer by layer mechanism activated by screw dislocations. The capture mechanism of gas-liquid inclusions by quartz at the deposit is identified, and gas-liquid and solid inclusions are examined in various quartz populations. The temperature of the mineral-forming processes is evaluated from the homogenization temperatures of the inclusions. Distinct quartz populations are determined to be formed under similar physicochemical conditions, at temperatures no higher than 260°C, which increased from earlier to later quartz populations. The quartz veins were produced by solutions of sodic-hydrocarbonate composition. The geochemical environment in which mineral-forming processes occurred at the Zhelannoe deposit was generally poor in fluid, and the inclusions are dominated by water and usually contain no more than 10 wt % carbon dioxide, strongly subordinated amounts of nitrogen and carbon monoxide, and no identifiable methane amounts.     

Olivine as an in situ piezometer in high pressure apparatus

The deviatoric stress produced in a large-volume, high-pressure apparatus of the girdle-anvil type has been estimated from the density of free dislocations induced in natural olivine single crystals (initial density of 2×10⁶ cm^?2). Experiments at maximum pressure P=40 kbar and temperature T=1050°C for t=1 h in NaCl cell assemblies and various P-T paths yield specimens whose dislocation densities are unchanged from this initial value, implying that the deviatoric stress was less than 140 bar. In BN cell assemblies, the recovered specimen from high P-T experiments exhibit much higher densities of dislocations (～10⁹ cm^?2) which have been produced by steady-state plastic deformation of the olivine crystals under a deviatoric stress of ～3 kbar. This value of deviatoric stress in BN has been corroborated by observations of the subgrain size and recrystallized grain size in specimens of longer run duration (3 h).     

The nature of potassium feldspar,exsolution microtextures and development of dislocations as a function of composition in perthitic alkali feldspars

Transmission electron microscope data on the morphology of exsolution lamellae, the nature of the potassium feldspar and the development of dislocations at lamellar interfaces in coherent cryptoperthites and fine microperthites are reviewed. Dislocations have been reported previously in only two crystals, and periodic dislocations noted in only one, an Or-rich microperthite. Periodic dislocations (spacing 100–150 nm) are here described from a ternary mesoperthite (Or₂₆ Ab₅₂ An₂₂). Small crystallites (<30 nm) of other phases have sometimes nucleated on the dislocations. The 020 lattice fringes of the feldspar phases have been imaged; the difference in 020 spacings can be almost entirely accommodated by the regular dislocations, so that the boundaries may be termed nearlyperfectly semicoherent.Dislocations have been found so far only in cryptoperthites with lens-shaped or straight lamellae, either in Or-rich feldspars or in Ab-rich ternary ones. In intermediate compositions with wavy or zig-zag albite lamellae, or lozengeshaped albite areas (braid microperthites) dislocations have not been observed. Strain reduction in intermediate compositions occurs by migration of lamellar interfaces from (¯601) to near (¯6¯61) as microcline forms in the diagonal association. In Ab-rich ternary feldspars the relatively high Ancontent blocks interface migration, and strain reduction occurs by nucleation of dislocations; the Or-rich feldspar phase is tweed orthoclase. In Or-rich bulk compositions the low volume of albite exerts insufficient stress to promote microcline formation, and tweed orthoclase develops. Interfaces do not migrate, and dislocations again develop. Fields in which different potassium feldspar polymorphs occur and in which the different exsolution textures are developed are summarized on a ternary diagram.     

The effects of stress on reactions in the Earth: Sometimes rather mean,usually normal,always important

Stress affects chemical processes on all scales in the Earth but the magnitude of its effect is debated. Here, I give a new synthesis of the theory that describes the effects of stress on chemistry, elaborating upon work in Materials Science which is built from fundamental thermodynamic laws, and show its significance in Earth Science. There are separate but compatible relationships describing what happens (1) at interfaces and (2) within grains. (1) The main chemical effects of stress in the Earth are due to variations in normal stress along grain interfaces and between interfaces with different orientations. For reactions involving diffusion these variations give effects on mineral stability broadly equivalent to pressure changes of (molar volume)/(molar volume change during reaction) × (stress variation). The volume ratio is generally large and so the effects of normal stress variations are always important since all stressed rocks have interfaces supporting different normal stresses. There is no global chemical equilibrium in a stressed system, so reaction kinetics contribute to ongoing evolution until stresses relax: this evolution can include deformation by diffusion creep and pressure solution, possibly with new mineral growth. These effects are relevant for predicting the conditions for reactions involving fluids, such as serpentinite formation and breakdown (relevant for the Earth's volatile cycles) and for other reactions such as ringwoodite breakdown (relevant for understanding the 660 km mantle discontinuity). (2) Within stressed solid solution grains it is not possible to define chemical potentials of all chemical components since one has to be specified as “immobile.” The chemical potential of a “mobile” component such as an exchange vector can be defined. It depends on the “partial molar strain,” a second rank tensor defining the variation in unit cell geometry with composition. In cubic crystals the partial molar strain is isotropic and the chemical potential of a mobile component depends on mean stress. In other crystal systems the partial molar strain is anisotropic and the chemical potential depends on a “weighted” mean stress; orientation as well as magnitude of stress has an influence. I propose “chemical palaeopiezometry”—the possibility of measuring past stress levels via chemistry. Examples show that stress variations in hundreds of MPa to GPa are required to produce 2% variations in composition but high stresses and/or precise chemical analyses will allow this proposal to be tested. High stresses around inclusions and dislocations could be targeted. So, the weighted mean stress inside grains has an effect which is relatively minor although potentially valuable in explaining chemical variations; the normal stress at interfaces plays the main role in chemical processes and its effects are of significant magnitude.     

Microstructure and fabric development in ice: Lessons learned from in situ experiments and implications for understanding rock evolution

In this contribution we present a review of the evolution of microstructures and fabric in ice. Based on the review we show the potential use of ice as an analogue for rocks by considering selected examples that can be related to quartz-rich rocks. Advances in our understanding of the plasticity of ice have come from experimental investigations that clearly show that plastic deformation of polycrystalline ice is initially produced by basal slip. Interaction of dislocations play an essential role for dynamic recrystallization processes involving grain nucleation and grain-boundary migration during the steady-state flow of ice. To support this review we describe deformation in polycrystalline ‘standard’ water-ice and natural-ice samples, summarize other experiments involving bulk samples and use in situ plane-strain deformation experiments to illustrate the link between microstructure and fabric evolution, rheological response and dominant processes. Most terrestrial ice masses deform at low shear stresses by grain-size-insensitive creep with a stress exponent (n ≤ 3). However, from experimental observations it is shown that the distribution of plastic activity producing the microstructure and fabric is initially dominated by grain-boundary migration during hardening (primary creep), followed by dynamic recrystallization during transient creep (secondary creep) involving new grain nucleation, with further cycles of grain growth and nucleation resulting in near steady-state creep (tertiary creep). The microstructural transitions and inferred mechanism changes are a function of local and bulk variations in strain energy (i.e. dislocation densities) with surface grain-boundary energy being secondary, except in the case of static annealing. As there is a clear correspondence between the rheology of ice and the high-temperature deformation dislocation creep regime of polycrystalline quartz, we suggest that lessons learnt from ice deformation can be used to interpret polycrystalline quartz deformation. Different to quartz, ice allows experimental investigations at close to natural strain rate, and through in-situ experiments offers the opportunity to study the dynamic link between microstructural development, rheology and the identification of the dominant processes.     

A mechanism for preferential H2O leakage from fluid inclusions in quartz,based on TEM observations

Preferential leakage of H₂O from fluid inclusions containing multiple gas components has been suspected in natural metamorphic rocks and has been demonstrated experimentally for synthetic H₂O-CO₂-rich inclusions in natural quartz. Knowledge of the physical and chemical characteristics of the leakage mechanism, which may be very complex, increases the value of natural fluid inclusions to metamorphic geology. It is proposed that crystal defects play a major role in nondecrepitative preferential H₂O leakage through quartz, and remain effective during metamorphism. Inclusions with either an internal overpressure or underpressure produce strain in the adjacent quartz crystal via the nucleation of many dislocations and planar defects (like Dauphiné twin boundaries). These defects allow preferential loss of H₂O from H₂O-CO₂-rich inclusions at supercritical conditions. The transport capacity of this leakage mechanism is enhanced by nucleation of small bubbles on defect structures. The nucleation of these bubbles seems to be a recovery process in strained crystals. Solubility gradients of quartz in water in a crystal with internally underpressurized inclusions may result in optical visible implosion halos in a three dimensional spatial arrangement, caused by the growth of small bubbles at the expense of the larger original fluid inclusion. Natural fluid inclusions from Naxos (Greece) are always associated with numerous interlinked dislocations. These dislocations may have been produced by plastic derormation or by crystal growth related processes (e.g. crack healing). The presence of small bubbles on these dislocations indicates that a similar leakage mechanism for H₂O must have occurred in these rocks.     

Spherulitic omphacite in pseudotachylytes: Microstructures related to fast crystal growth from seismic melt at eclogite-facies conditions

The microstructures and microtexture of omphacite spherulites from an eclogite-facies pseudotachylyte from central Zambia was studied by electron backscattered diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The spherulitic growth is characteristic for fast growth rates at high undercoolings resulting from quenching a melt of seismic origin to the eclogite-facies conditions. Its preservation constrains that no significant deformation was present after the seismic event and during uplift. The analysis of grain misorientations in spherulites indicates – in addition to the overall radial alignment of grains – that crystallization took place in a highly viscous medium, which does not allow grain reorientation during growth. The microstructure of omphacite is diverse and ambiguous: Grain contacts appear both curved and with 120° triple junctions with few recrystallized grains. Dislocations are frequent, but heterogeneously distributed and occur in dislocations networks, subgrain boundaries and as free dislocations with locally high densities. Planar defects (chain multiplicity faults parallel (0 1 0) ending at partial dislocations) are abundant, while twinning parallel to (1 0 0) is rare. Anti-phase domains with variable domain sizes within a single grain and the disappearance of domain walls around the planar defects constrain that most of the microstructure must be formed during or shortly after crystallization.Omphacite microstructures are commonly discussed as result of deformational stresses due to a tectonic forcing. Here, we hypothesize that thermal stress during growth also can provide a feasible explanation for this melt-grown omphacite followed with partial recovery under static conditions. The observation does not exclude repeated stress loading of the shear veins in general, but suggest that only the latest seismic event is preserved in the studied samples as fine-grained texture of the spherulites. Moreover, anti-phase domain sizes constrain that the rock must be uplifted rather shortly after the seismic event.     

Factors affecting preservation of coesite in ultrahigh‐pressure metamorphic rocks: Insights from TEM observations of dislocations within kyanite

To understand the preservation of coesite inclusions in ultrahigh‐pressure (UHP) metamorphic rocks, an integrated petrological, Raman spectroscopic and focussed ion beam (FIB) system–transmission electron microscope (TEM) study was performed on a UHP kyanite eclogite from the Sulu belt in eastern China. Coesite grains have been observed only as rare inclusions in kyanite from the outer segment of garnet and in the matrix. Raman mapping analysis shows that a coesite inclusion in kyanite from the garnet rim records an anisotropic residual stress and retains a maximum residual pressure of ~0.35 GPa. TEM observations show quartz is absent from the coesite inclusion–host kyanite grain boundaries. Numerous dislocations and sub‐grain boundaries are present in the kyanite, but dislocations are not confirmed in the coesite. In particular, dislocations concentrate in the kyanite adjacent to the boundary with the coesite inclusion, and they form a dislocation concentration zone with a dislocation density of ~10⁹ cm^?2. A high‐resolution TEM image and a fast Fourier transform‐filtered image reveal that a tiny dislocation in the dislocation concentration zone is composed of multiple edge dislocations. The estimated dislocation density in most of the kyanite away from the coesite inclusion–host kyanite grain boundaries is ~10⁸ cm^?2, being lower than that in kyanite adjacent to the coesite. In the case of a coesite inclusion in a matrix kyanite, using Raman and TEM analyses, we could not identify any quartz at the grain boundaries. Dislocations are not observed in the coesite, but numerous dislocations and stacking faults are developed in the kyanite. The estimated overall dislocation density in the coesite‐bearing matrix kyanite is ~10⁸ cm^?2, but a high dislocation density region of ~10⁹ cm^?2 is also present near the coesite inclusion–host kyanite grain boundaries. Inclusion and matrix kyanite grains with no coesite have dislocation densities of ≤10⁸ cm^?2. Dislocation density is generally reduced during an annealing process, but our results show that not all dislocations in the kyanite have recovered uniformly during exhumation of the UHP rocks. Hence, one of the key factors acting as a buffer to inhibit the coesite to quartz transformation is the mechanical interaction between the host and the inclusion that lead to the formation of dislocations in the kyanite. The kyanite acts as an excellent pressure container that can preserve coesite during the decompression of rocks from UHP conditions. The search for and study of inclusions in kyanite may be a more suitable approach for tracing the spatial distribution of UHP metamorphic rocks.