山西云岗石窟侏罗系地震液化砂岩柱的发现及其大地构造意义

本文主要报道在华北克拉通北缘云岗石窟景区内侏罗系地层中发现的20余个由地震液化形成的砂岩柱。地震导致的砂土液化是非常普遍的自然现象,地震波的震动使埋藏在地下未固结的饱和砂质沉积物迅速变为流体并在巨大压力下喷涌至地表,形成砂火山或泥火山。2008年汶川8. 0级大地震和2012年新西兰6. 2级地震都产生了严重的液化现象,在对地表造成严重破坏的同时,分别在地表形成了一系列的溢出丘和形态完好的砂火山。古地震之后,液化砂质沉积物往往在上涌的通道内固结成岩,形成穿层的岩柱或岩管。近年来,美国科罗拉多大峡谷相继发现很多地震液化形成的中生代巨型碎屑岩柱。2018年,本文作者在云岗石窟景区内的侏罗系云岗组中发现了20多条直径15~20cm左右、高可达2m以上穿层“侵入”的砂岩柱,有的在纵向上呈串珠状排列,有的呈不规则的树枝状自下向上伸展,膨大狭缩、分支复合现象非常明显,砂岩柱内部结构均一,不见任何层理。砂岩柱顶端的泥质围岩石中有明显向上牵引、拖拽的痕迹。这些砂岩柱没有任何硅化木的特征,也不是普通成岩作用形成的结核,与暴雨、泥石流、重力滑塌等作用均无任何关系,是古地震液化作用在地层内保存的遗迹,故称为液化砂岩柱。地震液化砂岩柱发育的层位位于李振宏等人(2014)在宁武—静乐盆地侏罗系云岗组顶部的凝灰质泥晶碳酸盐层位(160 Ma)之下约40m处,初步判定形成这些液化砂岩柱的古地震发生于160. 75 Ma~160 Ma之间的晚侏罗世。古地震的形成过程与燕山运动引起的地壳运动有直接的关联,是华北克拉通内与燕山运动伴生的古地震在地层中留下的最直接证据。     

Seismogenically induced fluidization of Jurassic erg sands, south-central Utah

Large bodies of fluidized sandstone occur in the Jurassic Entrada, Carmel, Page and Navajo Formations at several locations in south‐central Utah. They are most abundant in the Entrada Sandstone, where they commonly occur in clusters, have a cylindrical form and have a sharp contact with their cross‐bedded host rock. These clastic pipes are as wide as 75 m and have exposed heights of as much as 100 m. Some of the Entrada pipes extend well into the underlying Carmel redbeds. Other clastic pipes in the Entrada Sandstone are less deformed and display various degrees of brittle‐to‐hydroplastic deformation and liquefaction. Clastic pipes in the Page and Navajo Sandstones are less common, but are similar in size and form to those in the Entrada and Carmel, and probably have a similar origin. Some massive sandstone bodies are irregular in form and have tongue‐like projections into the host rock, implying forcible injection of fluidized sand. Several pipe–host contacts in the Entrada Sandstone display small‐scale ring faults. Where relative displacement can be clearly demonstrated, pipe sandstones are invariably down‐faulted, locally as much as 5 m. At two sites, Carmel host rock is upwarped around the Entrada pipes. Stratified and cross‐bedded breccia blocks occur in many Entrada pipes, and preliminary petrographic analysis indicates that at least some of these breccia blocks are derived from the host rock. Homogeneous pipe sandstones are also petrographically similar to their Entrada host rock, suggesting that some pipes originate through fluidization of the fine‐grained Entrada. Fluidization of the Entrada must have occurred in a water‐saturated environment during early diagenesis but before complete lithification, most probably under considerable porewater pressure. Although there are no known modern analogues to these huge masses of structureless sandstone, they may have a small‐scale modern counterpart in earthquake‐induced sandblows. These features were most probably caused by large‐magnitude seismic events during the Middle Jurassic, although other possibilities cannot be ruled out at this point.     

川西中侏罗统致密砂岩次生孔隙成因分析

基于岩石学观察,运用铸体薄片鉴定、扫描电镜分析、矿物烃类包裹体成分分析,结合储层特征,研究了川西中侏罗统致密砂岩次生孔隙的形成机制。结果表明,川西中侏罗统为典型的无生烃能力的红色碎屑岩地层,上沙溪庙组砂岩气藏气源主要来自纵向上距该气藏约1000~3000m的下伏上三叠统须家河组含煤层系,储层平均孔隙度9.6%,平均渗透率0.177×10^-3μm²,为远源致密砂岩气藏。次生溶蚀孔隙对储层总面孔率的贡献达60%,其对砂岩面孔率的贡献大于原生孔隙。砂岩中沥青的分布及高岭石的分布、地层水的证据以及次生矿物烃类包体成分等表明,次生孔隙主要由有机酸对长石溶蚀形成,有机酸主要有3种来源,一是下伏须家河组烃源层生烃过程中排出的有机酸沿断裂和裂缝向上运移进入上沙溪庙组,二是从须家河组运移上来的烃类与上沙溪庙组储层中的氧化剂反应生成的有机酸,三是上沙溪庙组泥岩脱水形成的有机酸。其中以前两种有机酸形成的溶蚀孔隙最为重要,而第三种来源的有机酸由于其形成的孔隙少且保存下来的很少,对储层的意义不大。区域流体势、断裂和裂缝的发育都为下伏上三叠统须家河组有机酸进入上沙溪庙组储层提供了有利条件。控制次生孔隙形成和分布的主要地质因素是砂岩中受物源控制的易溶组分含量、沉积相、储层所处的古构造位置以及断裂、裂缝的发育情况。     

浑善达克沙地的光释光测年研究

光释光测年技术以光可以使在半导体结晶固体中被俘获到光敏陷阱中的电子释放出来这一原理为依据,以样品在被覆盖前,它们的光释光信号都已经晒退回零为假设前提进行测年的。而风成沉积物是最符合这一假设的,所以光释光测年对于风成沉积物非常适合。本文对采自浑善达克沙地样品中的石英粗颗粒进行光释光测年,试图重建沙地的古环境演化过程。本文研究的样品分别采自浑善达克沙地的中部SG点(42°40'N,115°57'E)和东部YS点(43°14'N,116°49'E)。采样时,先挖大约30cm深,然后用锤子将金属小筒打入,拔出后,小筒用黑色塑料和胶带封死。到实验室后,小筒顶端大约1cm厚的样品用来测量     

辽西地区风积砂土振动液化特性的试验研究

本文对辽西地区风积砂土地震液化特性进行了实验研究,对围压、固结比、密度和细粒含量进行了分析,得出了它们对抗液化强度的影响规律,同时分析了不同细粒含量和干密度对砂土振动孔压发展模式的影响规律.在偏压固结情况下,振动孔压的发展趋势可以用双曲线对其进行模拟;在均压固结条件下,振动孔压的发展趋势和H.B.Seed、张建民等人研究的振动孔压发展趋势的曲线形态相一致.通过实验分析表明细粒含量、密度等都会对孔压的增长规律有一定影响.     

A reappraisal of a putative record of abelisauroid theropod dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of England

Abelisauroidea are a recently recognized clade of theropod dinosaurs that have a predominantly Gondwanan distribution. Recently, a distal theropod tibia from the Middle Jurassic of England was identified as an abelisauroid, representing one of the oldest records of the group in general and the only Jurassic occurrence in Europe. On this basis, rapid radiation of abelisauroid and a global distribution of this clade in the Jurassic were suggested. Here, the specimen in question is re-examined and the characters used for referral to the Abelisauroidea are re-evaluated. None of the proposed characters can be demonstrated to represent abelisauroid synapomorphies and all have a wider distribution; especially coelurosaurian theropods, which are known from contemporaneous beds in England, frequently show the same character combination. Thus, there is currently no secure evidence for the occurrence of abelisauroids in the Jurassic of the northern Hemisphere, and the early evolution of this clade remains poorly known. Furthermore, other fragmentarily known taxa previously referred to Abelisauroidea based on putative synapomorphies of the distal tibia, such as Ozraptor and Austrocheirus, should be considered as Theropoda indet.     

The study of relative density in some dune and beach sands

A new method was developed for the measurement of relative density in natural sand deposits. The method is based on hardening sand in the field, so that undisturbed samples can be obtained, and the later removal of the organic hardener in the laboratory. In the study of two coastal dunes use was made of “peels” which reveal in detail the internal structure of the sand. A definite relationship was established between relative density of the dune sand, its internal structure and mode of deposition. Very high relative densities, approaching and even exceeding 100%, were found in sand deposited by accretion on the top of the dunes. Low to very low relative densities were measured in slip deposits formed by avalanching of sand on the leeward slope of the dunes. High densities in accretion deposits are attributed to sand movement by saltation taking place during the accumulation of the sand and the very high kinetic energies expended during this transportation process. Low densities in the slip deposits are attributed to the process of avalanching which involves minimum energy expenditure. A more or less constant relative density of around 80% was found in the stretch of beach sand studied.     

Significance of interdune deposits and bounding surfaces in aeolian dune sands

Bounding surfaces and interdune deposits provide keys for detailed interpretations of the development, shape, type, wavelength and angle of climb of aeolian bedforms, as well as overall sand sea conditions. Current alternate interpretations of bounding surfaces require very different, but testable models for sand sea deposition. Two perpendicular traverses of Jurassic Entrada Sandstone, Utah, reveal relations among cross-strata, first-order bounding surfaces, and horizontal strata. These field relations seem explicable only as the deposits of downwind-migrating, climbing, enclosed interdune basins (horizontal strata) and dune bodies consisting of superimposed smaller crescentic dunes (cross-stratified deposits). A 1.7 km traverse parallel to the palaeowind direction provides a time-transgressive view showing continuous cosets of cross-strata, first-order bounding surfaces and interdune deposits climbing downwind at an angle of a few tenths of a degree. Changes occur in the angle of climb, cross-strata structure, and interdune deposits; these reflect changes in depositional conditions through time. A 1.5 km traverse perpendicular to the palaeowind direction provides a view at an instant in geological time showing first-order bounding surfaces and interdune deposits forming flat, laterally discontinuous lenticular bodies. The distribution of interdune sedimentary structures in this traverse is very similar to that of some modern interdune basins, such as those on Padre Island, Texas. Hierarchies of bounding surfaces in an aeolian deposit reflect the bedform development on an erg. The presence of three orders of bounding surfaces indicates dune bodies consisting of smaller, super-imposed dunes. The geometry of first-order bounding surfaces is a reflection of the shape of the inter-dune basins. Second-order bounding surfaces originate by the migration of the superimposed dunes over the larger dune body and reflect individual dune shape and type. Third-order bounding surfaces are reactivation surfaces showing stages in the advance of individual dunes. The presence of only two orders of bounding surfaces indicates simple dunes. Modern and Entrada interdune deposits show a wide variety of sediment types and structures reflecting deposition under wet, damp, and dry conditions. Interdune deposits are probably the best indicators of overall erg conditions and commonly show complex vertical sequences reflecting changes in specific depositional conditions.     

Erg margin of the Permian White Rim Sandstone, SE Utah

The Permian White Rim Sandstone of the Canyonlands National Park, Utah, contains a wide variety of sedimentary structures and features that largely result from stages in erg migration and marine influence on an erg margin. Three spatially distinct lithological and depositional facies are recognized and can be distinguished as informal units within the formation. The aeolian dune facies is composed predominantly of fine-grained cross-stratified sandstone of the White Rim erg. This facies is the most widespread and comprises the bulk of the formation. Within the aeolian dune facies are small subfacies that represent interdune deposits. A sheet sand facies, composed of parallel-bedded sandstone, makes up a significant part of the lowest part of the White Rim Formation. This facies appears to have been the precursor or leading (progradational) edge to the main erg system. The final facies is a reworked or veneer facies of rippled to disturbed sandstone that is localized in its extent. It is restricted to the upper few metres of the formation and is transitional in some places to the Triassic Moenkopi Formation. This veneer facies contains many structures which indicate marine reworking as well as periods of desiccation or subaerial exposure. Some previous interpretations of the White Rim Sandstone have tended to classify the whole formation as one depositional setting. It is clear that at the margin of a sand sea, as shown in the White Rim Sandstone, there are transitional facies due to the interactions with other environments. Additionally, variation in the stratigraphic relationships of facies can be related to stages of erg migration. Erg margin deposits preceded central erg development. Erg initiation occurred during a probable relative sea level low. Sea level influence is recorded at the top of the formation because erg termination accompanied a relative sea level high with cut-off of sand supply. Transgression of the Permian Kaibab Sea over the White Rim erg was probably the main process in preservation of original dune topographic relief. Sea level fluctuations also may have affected distribution of facies and the complexities of structures at the erg margin. Subsequent fluvial reworking of the veneer facies may have obliterated Late Permian features during lowest Triassic Moenkopi deposition.     

Fracture corridors as seal-bypass systems in siliciclastic reservoir-cap rock successions: Field-based insights from the Jurassic Entrada Formation (SE Utah,USA)

Closely spaced, sub-parallel fracture networks contained within localized tabular zones that are fracture corridors may compromise top seal integrity and form pathways for vertical fluid flow between reservoirs at different stratigraphic levels. This geometry is exemplified by fracture corridors found in outcrops of the Jurassic Entrada Formation in Utah (USA). These fracture corridors exhibit discolored (bleached) zones, interpreted as evidence of ancient fracture-enhanced circulation of reducing fluids within an exhumed siliciclastic reservoir-cap rock succession. Extensive structural and stratigraphic mapping and logging provided fracture data for analysis with respect to their occurrence and relationships to larger faults and folds. Three types of fracture corridors, representing end-members of a continuum of possibly interrelated structures were identified: 1) fault damage zone including segment relays; 2) fault-tip process zone; and 3) fold-related crestal-zone fracture corridors. The three types exhibit intrinsic orientations and patterns, which in sum define a local- to regional network of inferred vertical and lateral, high-permeability conduits. The results from our analysis may provide improved basis for the evaluation of trap integrity and flow paths across the reservoir-cap rock interface, applicable to both CO₂ storage operations and the hydrocarbon industry.     

Experimental study of the grading characteristic effect on the liquefaction resistance of various graded sands and gravelly sands

The liquefaction vulnerability of fine- to coarse-graded saturated sand and gravelly sand is evaluated by stress control cyclic triaxial laboratory tests. Cyclic triaxial test on reconstituted specimens is carried out with relative density of 45 %. Cyclic triaxial tests performed by sinusoidal wave form with 1-Hz frequency and with the effective consolidation pressure equal to 100 kPa. Cyclic stress ratio which caused initial liquefaction in 15 cycles recognized as the liquefaction resistance in cyclic triaxial test of present study. The result had been used to find a relationship between liquefaction resistance and the grading characteristics (e.g., coefficient of curvature and coefficient of uniformity) of various graded sands and gravelly sands. Then, it is realized that a relationship between liquefaction resistance and any of the sizes (i.e., D ₁₀, D ₃₀, D ₅₀, D ₆₀) appears to be more practical.     

Upper Jurassic Radiolaria from the Vocontian basin of SE France

Two sections of the Vocontian basin (southeast France) were explored for their radiolarian content. Preservation in calcite impeded their extraction from the Châteauneuf d’Oze section, which is well dated by ammonites. Fortunately, oligospecific assemblages of pyritized radiolaria were yielded by twelve limestone beds of the Méouge section. In general, preservation worsens towards the top of the section. The extracted fauna is dominated by Nassellaria and more particularly by Archaeodictyomitridae, Pseudodictyomitridae and Williriedellidae. It is the first time that some species are reported outside their type area or from Western Tethys. Amongst the published zonations the scheme of Baumgartner et al. (1995a) is found to be the most useful and allows correlation of the studied part of the section with the mid-late Oxfordian to late Kimmeridgian-early Tithonian time interval.     

Factors affecting the nature and rate of dust production from natural dune sands

This paper evaluates the influence of natural sand particle characteristics on the amount and particle-size distributions of dust produced by aeolian abrasion. It contrasts with previous studies of aeolian abrasion by conducting experiments using: (i) whole sand samples, as opposed to selected size fractions; (ii) natural, mature dune sands, rather than artificial or freshly crushed material; and (iii) weathered sands that have acquired a superficial clay coating, instead of grains with clean surfaces. Whilst previous research has found clear, positive relationships between particle size, sorting, roundness and the amount of dust produced by aeolian abrasion, the relationships determined in this study show some variation according to the geomorphological context from which the original samples were obtained. The most important factor affecting the amount and particle-size characteristics of the dust produced was the presence of a clay coating on the grain surface that is removed by the abrasion process. The dust produced by this mechanism had a modal size of 2–5  μ m and material <10  μ m comprised up to 90% of the particles produced.     

Rare earth elements of the Altar Desert dune and coastal sands, Northwestern Mexico

Twenty-one surficial sand samples from the Altar Desert coastal and desert dune systems were analysed for rare earth elements (REE) content. This was done to observe the provenance signatures for four strategic dune localities near the Colorado River Delta, the El Pinacate dune fields, and the beaches of the north of the Gulf of California in the state of Sonora, Mexico. Our goals are to show which mechanisms (i.e., aeolian, marine) exert more influence on the composition of the Altar Desert dune sands. This study also shows the usefulness of REE spatial distribution to determine the relative mobility of the sand. Some sand samples from the dune systems in San Luis Río Colorado (SLRC), Golfo de Santa Clara (GSC), and Puerto Peñasco (PP) displayed dissimilar REE concentrations with respect to the rest of the sand samples from the same sites. These differences can be related to short aeolian transport distance in the sands with high REE concentrations and long aeolian transport distance in the sands with low REE concentrations. Besides, high REE concentration in the sands might be due to their closeness to the Colorado River Delta sediments and to recycled sands derived from granitic rocks. In contrast, all the sand samples from the El Pinacate (EP) site have similar REE concentration values, suggesting that the El Pinacate dune sands are influenced by more selective aeolian processes and less diverse heavy mineral content. The Altar Desert dune sands are derived from granitic sources eroded by the Colorado River. Our results also indicate that the Altar Desert dune sands are low in heavy mineral content (with the exception of Fe and Ti bearing minerals) and enriched in carbonates with phosphates (especially at the PP site) yielding poor correlations between REE and major element concentrations. The REE geographical distribution values in the Altar Desert dune sands indicate that light and heavy REE concentration values are related to aeolian transport, maturity of the sands, their low weathering rates, proximity of the source rocks, and the biogenic debris input from beach sands into the dune.     

Ovalization of steel energy pipelines buried in saturated sands during ground deformations

Cross-sectional ovalization of buried steel pipes subjected to bending moment induced by end displacements is discussed. A three dimensional finite element analysis was conducted employing Abaqus/CAE. The pipe was simulated using 3D shell elements while the saturated sand soil medium was simulated by employing discrete nonlinear springs along the pipeline. The effects of normalized burial depth (H/D), diameter to wall thickness ratio (D/t), sand density and level of the internal pressure on the ovalization are investigated, and resulting ovalization distribution with respect to bending moment at critical sections is presented. The results of this study enable simple one dimensional finite element models to consider geometrical cross-sectional nonlinearities in the analysis of buried pipelines.     

Influence of plastic fines content on the liquefaction susceptibility of sands: monotonic loading

Acta Geotechnica - The paper presents an experimental study on the effect of plastic fines content on the undrained behavior and liquefaction susceptibility of sand–fines mixtures under...     

Assessing the engineering properties of concrete made with fine dune sands: an experimental study

Sand dunes cover an area of 16.6% of the total area of Egypt. This paper presents the results of an extensive laboratory testing that was carried out to determine the engineering properties of concrete. The concrete fine aggregate is fine dune sands obtained from three sites in the Kharga Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt. All samples were classified as poorly graded sand according to the Unified Soil Classification system. Fineness modulus values of the studied dune sands range from 0.89 to 0.97. The percentage of sulfates and chlorides are very low and nearly negligible. Sodium and calcium hydroxides were recorded in some samples with scarce concentration. Organic impurities were not recorded. The degree of workability of the studied dune sands ranged from low to medium, which are suitable for normal reinforced work without vibration and heavily reinforced section with vibration. The measured compressive strength of concrete decreases with increasing dune sand content.